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CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(MGnographs) 


ICMH 

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microfiches 
(monographies) 


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D 


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Cover  title  missing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

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D 


Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  / 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


I      I    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations  / 


n 


n 


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apparaissent  dans  le  texte,  mais,  lorsque  cela  etait 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  ete  filmees. 


0 


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n 


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lOx 

14x 

18x 

22x 

26x 

30x 

12x 


16x 


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24  x 


28x 


32x 


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first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — ♦•  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc..  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
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right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Las  images  suivantes  ont  4t*  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin.  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nenetA  de  l'exemplaire  filmi.  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat   'e 
filmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimAe  sont  filmAs  en  commencant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  film^s  en  commenqant  par  la 
premiAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  au  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
derniAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  -^  signifie   "A  SUIVRE  ".  le 
symbole  V  signifie   "FIN '. 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc..  peuvent  etre 
film4s  i  des  taux  de  reduction  diff^rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  etre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cliche,  il  est  film6  d  partir 
de  Tangle  sup^rieur  gauche,  de  gauche  i  droite. 
et  de  haut  en  bas.  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n^cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


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_^  APPLIED  IMAGE     I 

~.^  Rcc^este'-,  Sew  to'**    '4609   ^SA 

•-=S  {716.1  '.82  -  030C  -  Pnof.e 

^^  (716)  288  -  5989  -  Fai. 


|)art.  ^tbaffntr  &  iflan: 
Pn^t  (Etonomtt  (EBsaPB 


THE  CAU^E  AND  EXTENT  OP  THE  DECENT  INDUS- 
■  TRIAL  PROGRESS  OF  GERMANY  I'.y  Karl  iK  Howard. 
THE   CAUSES  OF  THE  PANIC  OF   1893.     By   William  J. 

Lauck. 
INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.     By  Hirlow   Stafford  Person, 

I'h  I). 
FEDERAL   REGULATION    OF    RAILWAY   RATES.     Hy   Al- 

b«rl  N    Mcrritt,  Ph.D. 
SHIP  SUBSIDIES.    AnF.conomicStudrof  the  Policy  of  Sub- 

",<lii;  .«  Mcthanl  Marme..     By  Waller  T.  Uunmore 
SOCIALISM;  A  CRITICAL  ANALYSIS      By  O.  D   Skelton. 
INDUSTRIAL  ACCIDENTS  AND  THEIR  COMPENSAT  ION. 

By  Gilbert  L.  Campbell,  B.  S. 
THE   STANDARD  OF   LIVING   AMONG  THE   INDUSTRIAL 

PEOPLE  OF    AMERiCA.     By   Frank  H.   btrcightotf. 

THE     NAVIGABLE    RHINE.     By  Edwin  J.  Clapp. 
HISTORY  AND   ORGANIZATION   OF  CRIMINAL  STATIS- 
TICS   IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.      By   Loui.  Newton 
Kobinun. 
SOCIAL  VALUE.     By  B.  M.  Anderson,  Jr. 
FREIGHT  CLASSIFICATION.     By  J.  K.  Strombeck. 
WATERWAYS    VERSUS     RAILWAYS.      By    Harold  Glenn 

Moulton. 
THE  VALUE  OF  ORGANIZED  SPECULATION.     By  Harri- 
son H,  Brace. 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION:    ITS   PROBLEMS.  METHODS 

AND  DANGERS.     By  Albert  H,  Leake. 
THE   UNITED  STATES  INTERNAL  TAX  HISTORY   FROM 

I  86  I  TO  I  87  I .     Hy  Harry  Edwin  Smith 
WELFARE  AS  AN  ECONOMIC  QUANTITY      By  G.  P   Wat- 

kins. 
CONCILIATION    AND    ARBITRATION    'N    THE    COAL    IN- 
DUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,     By  Arthur  h.  Suf- 
feru. 
THE  CANADIAN  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY.     By  W.  J. 

A.  Donald. 
THE  TIN   PLATE  INDUSTRY.     By  D.  E.  Dunbar. 
THE   MEANS  AND   METHODS    OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDU- 
CATION     By  Albert  H .  Leake. 

HOUGHTON    MIFFLIN   COMPANY 
Boston  and  New  Yokk 


l^axt,  ^c^affner  &  (JUavx  (pri^e  ^aaa^a 


f, 


XXI 

TIIE  MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF 
AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


i^K 


I 


Tin:  MKANS  AM)  MimiODS  Ol 
AiniKl  LTLKAL  EDUCATION 


II Y 


ALBKUT  II.  LKAKI-: 

liinjifrtiir  <./  Mitiiiiifl  Triiniiiiij  nii'l  lliHitrhultl  Scirnrt 

oiihirlii,  I  iiiimlii 

Author  •>!  ■■  lii'luntri'il  l-'.il iKiitiiin 

Its  /'ri'lili  in.i.  Ml  thoila  II nil  Jimnji  rs" 


g^^^ajjj 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK 

HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN    COMPANY 

;€t)e  nibcrtfibe  pTt«^  Cambnbge 

1915 


COPYKIMIT,    1915,    BY   HART,    SCHAIFNER    *    MARX 
ALL    RIGHTS    RKStKVEU 

I'ublliheJ  Sefttmbtr  igtj 


1993 


PREFACE 


This  scries  of  Ixxiks  owes  its  existence  to  the  generosity 
of  Messrs.  Hart.  Scluiffner  &  Marx,  of  Chicago,  who  have 
shown  a  si)ecial  interest  in  trying  to  draw  the  attention  of 
American  youth  to  the  study  of  economic  and  commercial 
snhjccts.  For  this  j)uq)ose  they  have  delegated  to  the  un- 
dersigned committee  the  task  of  selecting  or  ajjproving  of 
topir-s,  making  announcements,  and  awarding  prizes  an- 
nually for  those  who  wish  to  compete. 

For  the  year  ending  June  1,  lOl'J,  there  were  offered:  — 

In  Class  A,  which  included  any  American  without  re- 
striction, a  first  prize  of  $1000,  and  a  second  j)rize  of  $.500. 

In  Class  B,  which  included  any  who  were  at  the  time 
undergraduates  of  an  American  college,  a  first  prize  of 
$300,  and  a  second  prize  of  $'200. 

Any  e.ssay  submitted  in  Class  B,  if  deemed  of  sufficient 
merit,  could  receive  a  prize  in  Class  A. 

The  present  volume,  submitted  in  Class  A,  was  awarded 
second  prize  in  that  class. 

J.  Lalrexce  LvucnLiN-,  Chairman, 

University  of  Chicago. 
J.  B.  Cl.\rk, 

Columbia  University. 
Henry  C.  Adams, 

University  of  Michigan. 
Horace  White, 

AVir  York  City. 
Edwix  F.  Gay, 

Uarvard  University. 


,'i-- 


i  r- 1 


CONTEXTS 


Inthodiction 


IiiilKirtancv  of  eilui'.ition.  — ("hangc  in  rducatinn.-il  mt'thrxls 
.111(1  tlit'orics.  —  Af,'rirultiiral  rduciition  not  an  i.solatiii  (jui-s- 
fion.  —  The  economic  value  of  tlic  products  of  ajL,'riculfure.  — 
The  nuniliiT  of  persons  engaged  in  agriculture.  —  Agriculture 
the  hasie  industry. — Consumption  is  rapidly  overtaking  pro- 
iluction. — The  part  e<lucatii)n  must  play  in  the  development 
of  agriculture.  —  The  main  problem.  —  Sulxirdinate  prol>- 
It'ms xiii-xxi 


('h.\pteu  I.  ^\n  IIi.stouic.vl  Review  of  toe  Deveiop- 

ilENT   OF   AgIUCLLTVIUL    EDUCATION 

Some  ancient  records  and  early  developments.  —  The  con- 
triliution  of  agricultural  societies  in  .\meriea.  — The  develo[H 
ment  of  agricultural  teaching  in  the  I'nited  States.  —  The 
growth  of  the  movement  in  ("anada.  —  National  legislative 
enactments  in  the  Initetl  States:  the  Morrill  .\cts;  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Department  of  Agriculture;  the  Kxperiment 
Station  .\cts;  the  Smith-Lever  Hill.  —  U'ork  for  tiie  future       1-16 

Ch.\pter  n.  Some  Conditions  of  Rural  Life 

The  decline  in  rural  population  in  Canmia  and  the  I'nited 
States. —  The  shift  in  rural  p<>pulation.  —The  witness  of  the 
country  chun  h.  —  Some  contributing  causes  of  the  d<-<line  in 
population:  the  numlwr  f.f  men  requirtnl  on  the  land  less  than 
formerly;  lack  of  s<Kial  oj»iM)rtunities;  lack  of  educational  op- 
portunities: lack  of  opportunities  for  amusement  and  n-creation; 
the  popular  estimation  of  the  farmer;  the  tM)y  on  the  farm  as  an 
unpaid  hand;  the  decay  of  village  industries;  the  increa,se  of 
tenancy  throughout  the  country;  lack  of  ailequate  facilities  for 
transiK)rtation 17-51 

Chapter  III.  The  Rt'R\L  Elementary  School 

The  p'wblem  of  enrollment  in  the  I'nited  States  and  Canada. 
—  The  character,   tenun.    and   nniuncratinu   nf  teachers:   the 
.sex  i.f  t.Mch.rs,  the  preparation  of  teachers. —  The  problem  of 
material  e(|uipment.- -The  h-ni:th  of  sevion  in  rural  divtriets  • 
The  problem  of  supervi.'-ion,  the  lack  of  adequate  sui)ervi.>,ion. 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


inadequate  qualifirations  for  np[H)intment  of  superintendents; 
indiistriiil  suiwrvisors  in  rural  m'IkmiIs.  —  The  iicltiiinistration 
and  ornaiii/ation  of  rural  scIkmpIs:  tl;e  district  system;  tlie  town- 
sliip-uiiit  system;  the  eounty-unit  system.  - —  Advantages  of  the 
rural  school.  —  Object  of  pointing  out  defects   ....     Si-417 

CnAPTER  IV.  The  Improve.ment  or  tiie  Uuiial  School 

The  sch(M)l  survey.  —  Energizing  the  community.  —  The 
question  of  funds.  —  The  county  as  the  administrative  unit.  — 
'I'he  need  for  male  teachers  in  the  rural  schools.  —  .Vdapting  the 
rurid  sciiool  to  rural  conditions.  —  Demonstration,  or  model, 
.schools.  —  The  need  for  hetter  huihiings.  —  'I'he  one-rooin 
.sciiool.  —  The  arrangement  of  community  l)uililings. — The 
need  for  comiiuKory  attendance.  —  Nunc  notJihle  exampli-s  of 
rural  scIkkiI  improvement:  rural  schools  in  Iowa;  .s<'oring  rural 
schools  in  .Arkansas;  rural  scIkhjI  score  card;  rural  scIukiIs  in 
Denmark iH-^i 

CuAi'TEu    V.    Te-^cuixg    Agriccltxre    in    the    Rur-ax, 

School 

The  demand  for  instruction  in  agriculture.  —  The  correlation 
r)f  agriculture  with  other  sulijects  in  the  curriculum:  agriculture 
applie<l  to  the  teaching  of  Knglisii.  agriculture  applied  to  the 
teaching  of  arithmetic;  agriculture  afjpliiil  to  the  teaching  of 
g<>ography.  —  N'ature  stuily:  its  place,  puriM)se,  and  character; 
nature  study  through  collections  of  natural  ohjects. — The 
.scIkmiI  garden:  care  of  the  garden  during  the  summer  holidays; 
•school  gardening  in  towns  and  <ities.  —  The  home  garden. — 
How  time  may  Ix-  ohtained  for  nature  study  and  agriculture.  — 
Hindrances  to  tlu-  introduction  of  nature  study  and  agriculture: 
the  nature  of  the  subject;  the  overerowde<l  curriculum;  imma- 
turity of  pupils;  the  employment  of  women  as  teachers;  the 
liniite<l  time  available;  the  conservatism  of  sch<M)l  officials. 
—  Henefits  to  lie  derived  from  the  teaching  of  nature  study  and 
agri<'idture.  —  ScIuhiI  agriculture  as  u  means  of  keeping  the  boy 
on  the  farm 65-83 


Chapteh  VI.  The  Coxsolidation  of  Schools 

The  incejition  of  the  consolidation  idea.  —  The  present  status 
of  the  consdliii.ition  movement  in  Canada  and  the  I'nited  SUites. 
Not.ible  e\anipli\s  of  eonsoliilation:  the  .lohn  Swancy  <  on.soli- 
d.ited  .School;  the  Mays  Lick  SchcK)!.  —  The  expense  and  the 
clFiciiniey  of  the  eonsolidated  school.  — Some  of  the  difficulties 
in  the  way:  the  condition  of  the  roads;  the  grciiter  cost  of  con- 
st)lidution.  —  How  shall  consolidation  be  accoaiplished?      .    84-98 


CONTENTS 


CoAPTEK  MI.  Rural  Scucxjl  Extension 

S<'h(K)l  rri-ilil  for  honii'  prujci-ts.  —  Forms  of  rural  school  ex- 
tcnsiDU  .service.  —  Ho\ .s"  iiinl  girls'  iiKriiultural  clubs:  club  work 
in  till'  I  nitiil  Stiitos;  dub  coiitcsts  in  (aniulu.  —  Sc1hk)1  fairs: 
school  fairs  in  Ontario;  method  of  ori,'anijHition  and  nmnajftv- 
ment.  —  Vounj;  people's  institutes:  objects  of  institutes  for 
yuun>;  peo;>le;  olheers  and  their  duties;  Ixiys'  encampments;  soj)- 
arate  institutes  for  girls;  teachers  of  institutes  for yr)ung  peo- 
pKv  ^  Short  rour.s<-s  in  a>;ricultiirc.  —  Rural  evening  schools:  the 
M(H>nli(,'ht  whool.s;  what  shall  be  taught  in  evening  scho<j|s  ?  U9-I18 

ClIAPTEK  \TII.   SecONDAHY    EoUCA-nON    IN   AGRICCLTtOE 

Monetary  value  of  education  in  agriculture. — The  type  of 
hi;.'h  s<ho<)l  to  1m  developed.  —  .Advantages  of  existing  high 
whools.  —  .\dva!itagi's  of  sei)arate  agricultural  high  scIkkiIs.  — - 
I?oth  tyix's  of  .s(h(M)ls  are  ncf'ded.  —  Readjustment  of  the 
course  of  .stuily:  the  question  of  text lHH)ks.  —  The  mo<li(i«-<l 
cours«'  of  study.  —  Two  examples  of  the  reorganization  of  the 
existing  high  school:  ('<!lebrook  .\ca<lemy;  the  Farragut  schcMil. 
—  The  organization  of  the  sjK'cialized  agricultural  high  school: 
the  comity  agricultural  high  .schiKils;  <i>ngressional  di.strict  high 
schiMiIs;  an  <'xa!nple  of  the  s[H'<'!alizcd  county  high  s<'hool.  — 
The  need  foi'  speciaiiv  trained  ti'achers;  teachers  as  ef)unty 
representatives  of  the  Oepartment  of  Agriculture.  —  The  use  of 
land  in  eonne<-tion  with  .scIkmiIs:  home  projects;  the  Massachu- 
setts home-|)roject  plan 119-145 

Chapter  IX.  The  Aghkulttiwl  College 

The  purjxise  of  thi'  land  grant  colleges.  —  The  struggles  of  the 
land  grant  colleges.  —  The  report  of  the  Carnegie  Foumlation 
for  the  .\dvancement  of  Teaching.  —  The  facts  in  the  c-ase:  the 
intluenci'of  fhe<ild  arts  colleges;  engineering  is  not  the  dominant 
factor;  taking  the  youth  from  the  farm;  low  standar<ls  of  ad- 
mission; the  desire  for  numbers;  lack  of  nfrreenicnt  among  prt)- 
fessors;  has  agriculture  no  viK-ational  value?  —  The  future  of 
the  agricultural  collejM-s:  cours<'S  f)f  collegiate  grade;  short  spe- 
cial courses;  training  teachers;  extension  .s<'rvice;  investig.,tion 
and  research;  dissi-niination  of  existing  knowledge.  —  The 
broader  problems  awaiting  the  college:  problems  of  transporta- 
tion; problems  of  distribution;  a|)plication  of  corre<t  bu.siness 
methods  til  the  fnnn;  the  training  ipf  leaders.  —  The  place  of  the 
agricultural  college  in  the  educational  system      .       .       .        140-166 


I   c„ 


after  X.  Some  Forms  ok  Extension  Service 

The  iiMpe  of  agricultural  college  extension  M'rvie»».  —  The 

'|Ui-.-tiuu  uf  orgauizatiou.  —  i'liascs  of  cxtcnsiun  service:  reading 


X  CONTEXTS 

roursos;  movable  srhodls;  county  cxpiTts;  farmers'  cooperative 
(lenionstration  wurk;  luillitiri  service;  demonstration  trains.  — 
Tliu  oullixjk  for  future  lievelopnient 107-180 

Chapteii  XI.  Institites    and   Otiieh    Helps    for    xnE 
Adilt  Failmeii 

Tlic  rise  of  the  institute  rnovemenf.  —  The  extent  of  the  in- 
stitute moveinent.  — The  ii.iture  and  organization  of  farmers' 
institutes. — The  farmers'  institute  lecturer:  reputation  in  his 
own  community:  scientific  traiiiini,':  al>iiity  to  teach;  tact:  gen- 
eral (jualities.  —  Method  of  cli<Mi>;itii»  institute  le<-tiirer.s.  — I»- 
ealizalion  of  institute  work.  —  The  character  of  the  program: 
the  organization  of  the  forces;  the  length  of  the  institute  session; 
the  methods  of  teaching  to  Ik-  ad')|)tt-d.  —  Farmers'  cluhs.  — 
The  Crange:  the  early  history  of  the  grange;  the  organization 
of  the  grange;  the  work  of  the  grange.  — The  dangers  to  1)C 
guarded  against  in  rural  orgaiiiz.itions. — -The  fe<leration  of 
forces:  the  ne<'d  for  fiiieration;  the  form  that  fo«leration  may 
take;  a  state  plan  of  federation.  —  In  general    .       .       .        181-iiOO 


Chapter  XII.  The  Wom.vn  on  the  Faiim 

Importance  of  the  work  of  the  farmer  s  wife.  —  The  exodus  of 
girls  from  rural  districts.  —  The  kind  of  education  requir^^l  by 
the  rural  girl.  — -The  work  for  tiie  farm  girl  in  the  rural  ele- 
mentary .sch<M)l.  —  Ilou.sehold  seienif  in  the  home.  —  Home 
helps  for  the  girls  not  attending  school.  —  Special  hIgh-seh<X)I 
work  for  farm  girls.  —  College  courses  for  women.  —  Women's 
instit\ites:  women's  institutes  in  Ontario;  the  functions  of  wo- 
men's institutes;  spe<'ifie  instruction  given  by  women's  insti- 
tutes; typical  contract  between  women's  institutes  and  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  —  Domestie-seience  trains      .       iiOl-218 


Chapter  XIII.  The  Training  of  Tb:acher3 

The  training  of  teachers  for  rural  .schools. — The  need  of 
special  training  for  rural  sehmil-teiichers.  —  The  character  of 
the  training  needed.  —  Training  for  persons  preparing  to  teach: 
the  methods  in  Ontario;  rural  teachers'  conferences;  methods  in 
the  I'nited  States;  teacher-training  in  high  sch(X)ls;  county 
normal  sch(X)ls;  state  normal  schools.  —  Training  teachers 
already  in  service:  summer  sch(H)ls;  teachers'  institutes;  corre- 
s[>ondence  courses;  itinerant  teachers.  —  The  training  of  teach- 
ers for  higher  schools.  —  The  graduate  school  of  agricul- 
ture  419-235 


CONTENTS 


u 


CiiAiTKK  XIV.  TnE  Example  of  Dexmahk 

The  at'ritultnral  situation  in  Denmark.  —  Tho  roiiporutive 
movi-nn-nt.  —  The  kinds  of  (-(MJixTativc  organizatiuns.  —  The 
fx'opl.'s  hij-h  s(h(K.I:.  —  The  Royal  Agricultural  anil  Vcf.rinary 
Instifutiv  —  llunil  or>janization  in  Dcnniurk:  Danish  .\gri(ul- 
tural  S<xict\ ;  the  State  Department  of  Agrieulture;  farmers' 
asMK-iatiuns;  sinall-liolijers'  Jissoeiations;  sfK-eial  organizations; 
a>:rieullural  <-re(|its  assiKiations;  essentials  of  agricultural 
progress i30-il8 


■n 


AiTENbix.  List  of  .\iTiioiaTiE.s  co-nsilted 
Indkx      


Ml -205 

«07-)rrs 


m 


ILLISTRATIOXS 


MoDKI,     KfHAI.     S(  HOOI,    ON    TIIK    CaMI'IS    oK    \hW     V(  )HK 

Statk  Coi.i.KciK  OK  AciuiciLTi  UK  ....  Fr(inti.'< jii, ir 

('aHDIIOAIU)    MoIJKI-S    ()1     Al'l'KOVF.I)    !{|1{AI,   .'^(  1I()()I,I{|  II.I)- 

'^'•^ 40 

A    KkNTI  (  KY    Loo   S<  IIODLIIOISK 54 

\  ColNTUV  Cummi'mty-Ckntku 58 

The  M()NTAc;tK  (Mass.)  High  and  roNsoi.iDATKD  .School  84 
TiiK  John  Swanev  Consoi.idatki)  S<  iiool  ....  80 
\  A\  rsKi)  Eoa  TuAN.si'oiiTATiDN  in  I'l  I'li.s  ....  88 
.V  ('(jNsuuDATEt)  School  and  TiiANsiHjUTATiox  Wagons  [)\ 
Facsimile  ok  Field  Notes  on  Potato  Plot  .  .  .  ]()J 
Night  School's  .Vid  to  eliminate  Illiteuacy    .  .Hi 

("oLEDHOOK    .VcaUEMY ]JQ 

Home  Economics  E-khiuit  Cxu,  Couxell  Univeiusity     .  UQ 


f^- 


^f 


rt"! 


^ 


^f^ 


IXTItODlC  TIOX 


I'.ni  <  \ri<)\  i-  flic  rii<i-t  iiiiportjiiil  i|iif^li(iii  in  .\iii(Ti<;in 
cniiiitry  lift-;  jhmI,  indeed,  a  di^^iIl^,'lli^lliIll,'  mark  <if  jiros- 
ciit-day  di><ii>>i(iiis  i-;  tlir  promiticiicf  that  is  iiivcii  to  rdii- 
catiorial  |inil>lrins.  Kdiicatioii  lies  at  the  foundation  of 
deinoeraey.  and  its  progress  is  a  vital  eoiic<Tti  of  th<'  coin- 
nioii  people.  The  I;:ynian  to-day  is  taking'  a  |)art  in  the  rlis- 
ciissioM  of  educational  matters  second  only  to  that  of  the 
man  who  has  made  fhctn  a  life  study.  The  xliools  are 
liciiii;  suhmitled  to  the  t«'st  of  prixiucint;  n'>ults,  and  are 
hein;:  required,  as  never  liefore,  to  -iiou  rcturn>  commen- 
surate with  the  money  inxcsfcd. 

I'Mucational  ni'-thods  and  theories  are  undcrt;oinfj 
( haiiL'c.  iioth  the  [)o[)ular  and  the  professional  e.Ticep- 
liniis  of  education        that  culture  could  lie  attai  >nly 

throuizh  the  ^'ateway  of  an  intiinale  knowledge  of  <  sical 
laiii,Mia;.'es  and  literature  -  were  louf,'  un(|ues»i()ned.  Kdii- 
cators  themselves  were  larf^ely  res|)onsil)le  for  this  nn'id 
conception.  Consciously  and  unconsciously  they  estah- 
lished  the  idea  that  education  consisted  of  the  ac(|uisition 
of  a  kiiowlcd^'cof  Latin  and  (Jreek,  and  those  thinj,'s  which 
had  relation  only  to  the  intellectual  and  introspective  life, 
with  the  result  that  peojile  came  to  look  upon  the  posses- 
sion of  such  knowledf,'e  a.-^  the  oidy  means  of  ^'iving  to  their 
children  a  better  training  for  life  than  they  had  n-ceived 
themselves.  We  are  now  enpif^ed  in  the  pnxess  of  modify- 
int:  this  conception  —  and,  indeed,  extremi>ts  are  almost 
reject iiiLT  it  --  hy  recoi^nizing  the  educational  \alues  that 
are  recei\ed  from  a  traininir  in  the  scicnc*'  and  art  of 
ii'MJcrn  industries  and  {irofes-ioiis. 

I'he  ^'oal  in  education  to-day  is  douhtless  hut  little 
(hanged  from  the  past,  hut  a  new  interpretation  is  being 


,vi  INTUODKTION 

given  to  lh««  I.Tni  "culliir.-."  aiul  i.alliwnys  fo  r<liirnfiori 
thill  lire  ciisirr  for  the  (oiimioi.  |ko|,1c  to  r..Il..\v  an-  l.nn^{ 
oixnc.l.    TIk-  new  (•..iicr;,! ioii  is  l.aM-.l  ••ii  a  fiiilrr  iindrr- 

stau.link'  of  t»"-  '"'l  <"  '•<•  "'••''"••'!•  ""  •''••  ""•■  ''*""'•  "'"* 
of  flu-  people  to  l.e  .-.liK  ate,!.  ..II  tlie  otli.T.  Tliis  is  niakiMH 
imiHTitive  a  re.oiisi.leralion  of  the  roi.teiit  aii<l  method 
ui  a  rational  vlieine  of  e<hieatioti. 

A(;UI(  I   I.Tl  HAI.     KDK  ATH.N     N<»T     AN'     ISOI.ATKH     Wl   KSTION 

Aprieiiltiir.il  e.lueation  is  a  phase  of  the  hn.a.ler  proh- 
h-ni  of  iii(hi>lrial  e(hieation.    In  etirrent  echieatioiial  dis- 
russi..i.s.  however,  the  term  "iiulustrial  e(ln<-ati..n"  has 
heen  inler|.rete,l  to  mean  ahiio>t  .  ..hisively  tlw.t  form  of 
training;  whi<li  will  fit  for  participation  in  the  meehameal 
purMiits  of  the  factory  aiul  tiie  workshop.    In  the  diseus- 
sioiis  of  <-du«ati..n  for  industrial  purposes  aurieulture  has 
held  a  suhordinate  jilaee,  hut  the  time  has  come  uheii  this 
basic  human  industry  must  receive  adeiiuale  considera- 
tion.  This  is  especially  true  Ix-caiise  the  inlluence  of  tradi- 
tion is  ^'reater  in  aKrieullural  processes  than  it  is  in  other 
indu.stries.  and  praeli<al  knowled-e  has  lu-eii  transmitted, 
with  a  modicum  of  theory,  from  father  to  son,  resultiuf,', 
too  often,  in  had  farming',  low  ideals  of  living,  and  un- 
sound husiness  management.    Covernor  Harmon  of  Ohio 
says,  "While  all  other  lines  of  our  industries  have  received 
a  great  impetus  from  intelligent  thought,  agriculture  seems 
to  have  been  largely  passed  by.   Too  widely  the  idea  pre- 
vails that  all  u  nuin  has  to  do  is  to  scratch  the  ground,  sow 
some  seed  into  it,  plough  it  once  in  a  wliile,  and  trust  the 
lx>rd  to  do  the  rest." 

The  education  of  the  farmer  is  a  matter  that  concerns 
the  urban  population  as  well  as  the  rural  population. 
Town  and  country  are  mutually  dependent.  The  threads 
of  our  national  life  are  now  so  interwoven  that  the  prob- 
lems of  the  conntry  and  the  city  cannot  be  wholly  sepa- 
rated. The  liigh  cost  of  living  is  forcing  city  dwellers  to 


1 


3 


INTIIODKTION 


X\  II 


invcsti^'iifc  more  closc-ly  llic  origin  iitid  tlio  valms  of  the 
|iri>i|ii('l>  Ixiii^'lit  for  tlir  family  liililr,  and  is  itxIiKiii^'  the 
f;iriii<T  iitui  tlu-  >,'ar(i«'iHT  li>  slinly  I  lie  <ity  markt-t  «|inita- 
finii>,  the  co-.t  (if  traiis|)«irlati<>ii,  tin"  iiifliiciM*"  of  ^jimmI 
r<Mii>.  ami  rclati-d  proMfins. 

'I  In-  city  is  (Irpcndnit  njxiii  flu-  (niinlry  fur  new  life 
M-mmI  and  \i;j:(ir  to  inaiiitaiii  its  |Mi|)iilat ion  and  its  itidiis- 
trial  proj^'n-ss,  while,  on  tin*  oilier  lian<l,  flu-  coiinfry  eon- 
slaiilly  liMtks  to  the  city  for  its  markets,  and  hir;;«'ly,  also, 
fur  its  ediieational  fatilities  and  its  amusements.  Cntil 
nieiitiy  the  interests  of  town  and  ronnfry  have  In-en  fre- 
fjiieiitly  regarded  as  anta^;onistie;  litit  "the  wcll-heinn  of  a 
people  is  like  a  tr«v:  a^jrieultun-is  itsriwit,  mamifaetun-satid 
<i>mmeree  are  its  liran(ln's  and  its  life;  if  the  riMit  is  injureil 
the  leaves  fall,  the  liranelies  lireak  away,  and  the  tree  dies."' 

.\;:ri(iiltural  prosperity  is  one  of  the  most  important 
fa<  tors  in  financial  staKility.  This  is  shown  liy  the  iluct na- 
tions in  the  inoiu-y  market  aceordinj,'  to  gmnl  or  liad  har- 
vests. Hu^iness  men  must  l)e  hrou^jht  to  an  active  reco^;- 
iiition  of  the  fact  that  the  success  of  farmin^j  operations 
means  increased  trade,  and  that  farmii\>i  determines  more 
lar^rely  the^'ciieral  pros|>erity  of  the  country'  than  the  suc- 
(•ess  (if  any  other  industry. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  farmer  should  he  able  to 
look  after  himself,  and  it  is  assumed  that  aid  given  to 
ai,'riculture  will  lienefit  the  farmer  alone.  This  is  not  the 
case;  liut  even  if  it  were,  have  not  matiy  other  industries 
heeii  sulisidized?  \Vitness  the  aid  given  to  railroads,  the 
granting  of  i)atents,  and  the  estaMishmcnt  of  tariffs  '.n  va- 
rious forms,  all  of  which  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  direct 
financial  aids  to  industry. 

The  development  of  agriculture  is  a  national  question, 
not  a  local  or  individual  one;  and  the  reasons  for  so  re- 
garding it  may  he  considered  under  the  following  heads:  — 

•  I'liHik.tt,  Sir  Horace.    The  Rural  Life  Problem  in  the  Uuited  Slates. 


X^'lll 


INTRODITTION 


1.  Tin*  (Tononiic  value  of  tlio  products  of  agriculture. 

i.  The  nunihcr  of  persons  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
agriculture. 

.'J.  .Xgririillure  is  the  basic  industry. 

•t.  The  consumption  of  agricultural  products  is  rapidly 
overtaking  the  production. 

THE  ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  PHOnUCTS  OF 
AGRICfLTCRE 

The  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
.\griculture,  in  his  Report  for  l!)()t,  says:  "An  occupation 
tiial  is  producing  such  unthinkable  values  as  one  aggregat- 
ing nearly  $.").()()0,()()(»,()()0  within  a  year  may  be  better 
nieasurc(l  by  some  comparisons.  All  of  the  gold  mines  of 
the  entire  world  have  not  produced,  since  Columbus  dis- 
covered America,  a  greater  value  of  gold  than  the  farmers 
of  this  country  have  produced  in  wc.iith  in  two  year  . 
This  year's  produce  [1!)()4|  is  over  six  times  the  amount  of 
capital  stock  of  the  national  banks.  It  comes  within  three 
(piarters  of  a  billion  dollars  of  equating  the  value  of  the 
manufactures  of  1900  less  the  cost  of  the  materials  u.sed. 
It  is  twice  the  sum  of  our  imports  and  exports  for  the  year. 
It  is  two  and  a  half  times  the  gross  earnings  from  the  rail- 
roads. It  is  three  and  a  half  tinu  s  the  value  of  all  minerals 
produced  in  this  country,  including  coal,  iron  ore,  gold, 
silver,  lead,  and  (juarricd  stone." 

According  to  the  latest  available  Canadian  statistics,  the 
j)roducts  of  agriculture  in  Canada  amount  to  over  $400,- 
000,000.  which  is  three  times  as  great  as  the  combined 
values  of  the  products  from  forests,  mines,  and  fisheries. 


THE    NCMUKU    ok    I'EKSONS    ENCJAGEO    in    the    rUACTICE 
OK    ACIRICrLTlUE 

The  last  census  returns  give  the  number  of  i)ersons  en- 
gaged in  gainful  occupations  in  the  I'niled  States  as  29,- 
.'500,000,  of  which  number  thirty -six  per  cent  are  engaged  iu 


IN'TUODl'CTION' 


XIX 


nirri(ijlfi:r;il  operations.  This  is  the  larjiest  niiinhcr  en- 
gii^t'tl  in  any  sinfjli-  f,'r()ui>  into  which  the  industries  are 
divided.  Notwithstanding  the  remarkable  growth  of  nianu- 
facliires  during  the  past  twenty  years,  agriculture  eiu- 
jdttys  more  pe(>])Ie  than  any  of  the  other  industrial  groups. 
In  the  United  States,  .V.i.l  per  cent  and,  in  Canada,  5i.. 
per  (tilt  of  the  population  is  clas.sed  as  rural;  and  while  it 
is  not  fair  to  assume  that  all  the  rural  population  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture,  or  that  all  the  urhan  ])0[)idalioii  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacturing  induslries,  the  proi)ortions 
of  the  two  afford  an  indication  of  the  relative  importance 
of  the  two  types  of  industry. 


AGRUTLTURE    IS   THE   BASIC   INDrsTRV 

.\griculture  is  not  only  the  basic  industry,  hut  it  is  .so 
closely  related  to  the  commercial  and  business  cnter|)rises 
tliat  it  caiuiot  be  wholly  separated  from  them.  Manu- 
facturers arc  concerned  with  the  supply  of  raw  material, 
and  they  strive  both  to  increase  the  supply  and  to  provide 
sul)stitutes  when  it  threatens  to  fail.  For  example,  the 
National  Association  of  Paint  Manufacturers  is  taking 
steps  to  secure  greater  production  of  fla.xseed,  from  which 
linseed  oil  is  made. 

.\n  increase  of  only  one  bushel  of  grain  per  acre  through- 
out the  United  States  would  require  1'2,.>00  extra  trains  of 
fifty  cars  each  for  transportation.'  The  great  railway  com- 
panies are  fully  aware  that  agricultural  prosperity  means 
increased  l)usiness.  This  conviction  is  shown  by  their  ef- 
^>rts  to  attract  settlers,  to  develop  the  farm  lands  along  their 
riiules,  and  their  practice  of  running  well-eciuii)jK'd  agricul- 
tural demonstration  trains  for  the  benefit  of  their  patrons. 


fONSlMlTION    IS    RAPIDLY    OVERTAKING    PRODtTTION 

The   President   of   the   Michigan   Agricultural   College 
estimates  that  the  population  of  the  Unit^-d  States  fifty 
'  New  V.irk.  Statt.'  Dtpiirtment  of  .^griiulturf.   Hulktin  35,  p.  955. 


TX 


INTRODrCTION 


years  hence  will  he  'iOO.orXj.OOO.'  The  annual  yield  in 
stai)le  crops  is  not  keeping  pace  with  the  increase  in  popu- 
lation. For  exanij)]c,  while  the  <(irn  croi)  of  l!)0(>wasthe 
lar^'cst  ever  [jroduced  in  the  I'nited  Stales,  the  yield  per 
acre  was  less  than  in  IHT-J;  and  the  same  is  true  of  wheat 
and  other  important  cereals. =  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  additional  food  retjuired  to  feed  the  increasing  popula- 
tion can  no  lon<:er  he  obtained  by  increasing;  the  acreajxe 
under  cultivation.  It  must  now  be  procured  by  increasing 
the  amount  raised  per  acre. 

The  same  condition  holds  in  respect  to  all  kinds  of  live- 
stock, both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  In  the 
former  )untry,  from  lOOO  to  1!)1()  all  branches  of  live- 
stock breedi..<;  were  tliminished,  and  in  Canada  during  the 
same  period  the  number  of  horned  stock  exported  was 
decreased  by  S(),()()(),  and  of  sheei)  by  more  than  400,000; 
and  whereas  Canada  used  to  export  some  twelve  millions 
of  poultry,  it  now  ex{)orts  none;  it  no  longer  exports  eggs, 
although  it  once  exported  11,000.000  dozens.^ 


TIIF:    PAUT    EDITATIOX   MIST    PL.\y 

The  welfare  of  the  nation  depends  much  on  tiie  character 
and  the  extent  of  the  means  of  agricultural  betterment. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  agricultural  returns  are  the 
barometer  of  national  j)r()sperity.  It  is  now  time  that  na- 
tional and  state  legislatures,  nmnicipal  organizations,  and 
local  societies  of  farmers  and  business  men  joined  their 
forces  to  assist  in  giving  to  agriculture  the  assistance, 
encouragement,  and  direction  which  its  importance  war- 
rants. As  a  national  business  investment,  the  expenditure 
of  nuich  larger  sums  in  agricultural  in\  siigation,  educa- 
tion, and  demonstration  could  be  made  not  only  to  give 
adoipiatc  returns  in  increased  production,  but  to  materially 

1   Micliigan  Agri(  ultura!  College.    Kulletin,  October,  l!)08,  p.  10. 

'■   Ihid.,  p.  Mi. 

'  Jules  Meliue  at  Tenth  Internutiouul  Congress  of  .Vgriculture. 


INTRODUCTION 


zxi 


raise  tho  standards  of  rural  living  and  strengthen  the 
n.'ition  as  a  world  power. 

Kdiicutiori  hy  means  of  apricultural  subjects,  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  rural  cornniiuiities.  is  a  much  hirger  and 
more  dinicult  j)rol)lern  than  the  education  of  the  niv  hanic 
or  the  artisan.  Agriculture  is  not  one  occupation  hut  many 
coriiphcated  occupations,  depending  on  many  sciences  and 
deniaiiding  many  kinds  of  skiU.  It  is  a  complex  probhMn, 
involving:,  in  the  [)rocess  of  education,  not  only  the  primary 
consideration  of  making  the  farm  pay,  hut  also  the  rev- 
olutionizing of  the  business  methods  of  farmers  and  the 
development  of  a  higher  social  welfare. 

The  farmer  is  strongly  conservative,  owing  largely  to 
his  individualistic  training,  and  it  is  no  small  task  to  over- 
come liis  strong  attachment  to  old  and  well-established 
j)racti(es.  The  first,  and  sometimes  the  hardest,  of  the 
educational  |)rol)lems  is  to  lead  him  to  see  that  the  educa- 
tion of  his  children  is  at  least  as  imjjortant  as  the  fattening 
of  his  liogs.  The  task  of  arousing  the  farmer  to  this  con- 
ception is  not  peculiar  to  any  one  countrj'  or  generation. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  Sir  Horace  Plunkett 
found  it  necessary  to  address  fifty  meetings  in  order  to 
persuade  a  single  Irish  community  to  start  a  cooperative 
creamery;  and  it  was  another  twelve  months  before  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  second.' 

Owing  to  the  complexity  of  the  problem,  many  features 
not  usually  looked  upon  as  pertinent  to  an  educational 
discussion  must  enter  into  its  consideration.  Agriculture 
ditFiTs  from  most  vocations  in  that  it  determines  both  the 
location  of  the  home  and  the  nuimier  of  living.  For  this 
reason,  the  study  of  vtx-ational  agriculture  must  include, 
in  addition  to  technical  training,  the  rights  and  duties  of 
citi/eiiship,  the  essentials  of  home-making  and  of  com- 
munity building,  iiuisnuich  as  the  country  has  a  type  of 
organization  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  towns. 

'  I'luiik'tt,  Sir  Ilofiirc.    The  liuml  Lifr  ProbUm  in  the  United  StaUs. 


XXII 


INTUODl  CTION 


The  prosperity  of  the  rural  districts  is  dependent  almost 
as  niucli  upon  tlie  social  advantaf,'es  as  upon  the  ability  of 
the  individual  to  ^,'ro\v  crops  and  to  raise  stock.  The  prob- 
lem to  he  considered  is  how  the  agricultural  land  may  he 
made  to  produce  an  ade(iuate  food-supply  for  the  rapidly 
growing  population,  while  at  the  same  time  provision  is 
made  for  such  scnial  and  educational  advantaj;es  as  will 
induce  the  best  of  our  country  people  to  remain  in  the  open 

ct)untry. 

This  main  problem  involves  a  number  of  subordinate 
yet  closely  related  considerations,  the  chief  of  which  are 

as  follows:  — 

1.  A  system  of  education  suited  to  hx-al  conditions  and 
to  the  everyday  (xperiences  of  country  children,  thus  re- 
latiuf:  them  to  the  opportunities  surrounding  the  "d 
developing  their  intellects  through  a  reasonable  a  1- 
tural  and  natural  history  outlook. 

2.  The  adaptation  of  the  education  of  the  boy  and  girl, 
from  fourteen  to  nineteen  years  of  age,  toward  productive 
efliciency  along  agricultural  and  home-making  lines. 

;{.  The  training  of  the  adult  farmer  in  methods  of  soil 
cultivation  and  farm  management  according  to  scientific 
principles,  and  the  jiroper  dissemination  of  the  available 
knowledge  on  these  subjects. 

4.  A  .serious  consideration  of  the  conditions  of  the  farm 
home  and  the  work  that  is  carried  on  therein.  Agriculture  is 
a  home  industry,  and  the  work  of  the  woman  plays  a  more 
important  part  than  in  any  other  industry.  The  drift  from 
the  country  to  the  city  is  influenced  greatly  by  the  condi- 
tions of  the  farm  home. 

5.  The  development  of  sound  business  methods  in  all 
farming  operations  and  the  establishment  of  coiiperative 
methods  of  farming,  distribution  of  products,  and  buying  of 
supplies.  This  entails  con.sideration  of  the  means  by  which 
the  farmer  may  fairly  obtain  money  for  the  exiension  of 
his  operations. 


INTRODICTION 


XXlll 


f>.  An  unilerstanding  of  the  swial  and  economic  advan- 
Uv^vs  of  good  roads  and  oUut  methods  of  trans|)orlatioii. 

7.  A  re-vitahzation  and  re-dire<ti(m  of  country  life  in 
order  that  the  higher  aspirations  of  farmers  may  (ind  their 
satisfaction  in  the  richer  hfe  that  the  country  may  be  made 

to  offer. 

'1  lu'  following  pages  will  attempt,  in  some  measure,  to 
(Kid  with  the  above  problems. 


tm 


£ 


¥:'■"! 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


CILVPTER  I 

AN  niSTCUICAL   REVIEW  OF  THE    DEVELOPMENT    OP 
AGUICULTURAL   EDUCATION  ' 

I N  Iho  advocacy  of  new  schemes  of  education  we  are  likely 
;^  to  for^'cl  the  deljt  we  owe  to  tlie  pioneer  workers  who  by 
their  hihors  have  made  educational  progress  possible.  Agri- 
cultural education  owes  much  to  the  educators  of  the  past, 
out  of  wliose  work  it  has  grown,  and  its  present  status  can- 
nut  well  be  understood  without  a  brief  review  of  its  history. 

80ME   ANCIENT  RECORDS   AND   EARLY   DEVELOPMENTS  * 

Formal  instruction  in  agriculture  probably  began  with 
what  may  be  considered  a  type  of  school-garden  move- 
ment. In  1015  B.C.,  Solomon  possessed  extensive  gardens 
in  which  all  kinds  of  plants,  "from  the  cedar  tree  that  is  in 
Lebanon  even  unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the 
wall,"  were  kept,  probably  for  purposes  of  instruction  and 
example  as  well  as  for  adornment. 

King  Cyrus  (559-529  b.c.)  laid  out  in  Persia  the  first 
school  garden,  in  which  the  sons  of  noblemen  were  in- 
structed in  agriculture. 

Aristotle  (82-22  B.C.)  understood  the  importance  of 
agriculture  and  WTote  as  follows:  — 

The  first  attention  should  be  paid  to  that  which  Is  in  ac- 
cordance with  nature:  for  by  nature  agriculture  is  first;  next 
come  all  tliose  things  which  are  derived  from  the  earth,  such 
as  mining  and  other  arts  of  like  kind. 

'  Bailey,  L.  H.  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agncuiture  vol.  4.  Consulted 

freely. 

'  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  United  States.    Repori,  1898-91>. 


m 


I  A(iRICrLTrRAL  EDICATION 

n.il  aKri.uU.in-  .luml-l  l.o  rank.d  first  hccause  it  is  just: 
[or  it  .I.MS  i...t  .l.rivi-  its  profits  from  mt-n.  either  Nv.tf.  tli.ir 
ronstnt.  like-  jx-tty  traffic,  uii.l  iW-  mmt-narv  arts,  or  uilliout 
tlair  (oiis.-nt.  iiki-  tin-  arts  wliicli  pt-rtain  to  war. 

Furtficr.  also,  agriniiturf  is  natural,  for  naturally  every 
existiuK  thin}-  derives  its  nourishn.ei.t  from  it.s  mother,  and  so 
eonsffiuentlv  men  derive  it  from  the  earth.  ..... 

M..ri-over.  it  contril.utes  mu(  li  towards  fortitude:  for  it 
,1,HS  n..t  nuike  the  iKnly  UMMTvieeal.le,  like  the  illil.eral  art.s. 
hut  reii.i.Ts  it  fit  to  live  au.l  labour  in  the  open  air.  aii.f  to  run 
the  risks  of  war  against  a-ssailanls.  For  hushan.lm.-n  are  the 
only  iHTSons  wliose  posMssioiis  lie  outride  eity  v.  alls.' 

There  is  r.  legend  thai  Kin^'  Aifre.l  csfahlished  a  .school 
where  farm  bovs  were  t<.  he  taught,  and  thai  litis  .seliool 
wa.s  tlie  Legiiining  of  Oxford  Lniversity;  but  this  lacks 
historical  coiifinnation. 

Many  of  the  older  European  universities  had  gardens, 
which  most  likely  were  u.sed  for  purixKses  of  instruction. 
In  \515  A.I)..  Caspar  de  Gabriel,  a  wealthy  Italian  noble- 
man, laid  .)iit  the  first  garden  of  which  there  is  record,  in 
Tii>caiiv,  and  this  example  was  folh)wed  by  many  Italian 
cities,  notably  Venice.  Milan,  and  Naples.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  botanical  garilen  was  estab- 
lished in  Paris,  "becau.se  the  embroiderers  of  the  court 
dresses  needed  new  flt>ral  designs." 

In  15.34,  the  Jesuits  established  the  principle  of  "inter- 
e.st"  in  education,  and  argued  that  learning  should  have 
some  relation  to  living.  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Rabelais  taught  that  the  individuality  of  the  pupil  should 
he  considered,  and  that  the  materials  for  his  education 
should  not  he  drawn  from  hooks  alone,  hut  from  the  ex- 
ternal world,  from  the  heavens,  the  trees,  and  even  from 
the  usual  occupations  of  men. 

In  1(k>1.  there  was  published  in  London  a  small  pam- 
phlet, by  Samuel  Ilartlib.  entitled  "An  Es.say  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Husbandry-Learning:  or  Propositions  for 
1  Economics,  book  1,  chap.  2. 


IILSTOUICAL   UEMEW  3 

Hie  Kmlin^a  Collodgc  of  Ilushandry:  and,  in  onlor  tliiTe- 
iiiitn,  for  flic  faking  in  of  rn|)ill.s  or  Apiin-nticcs.  And  also 
Friends  of  Fcllowos  of  the  sanii-  ("ollt-d^'c  or  S(Mit>ty."  Tlic 
author  |>rof>os<'d  that  such  a  collcjio  should  havo  four  pro- 
fessors, one  of  whom  should  he  sent  to  Asia,  one  to  Kurope, 
one  to  Africa,  and  one  to  America  to  study,  and  that  they 
should  retract  whenever  they  taught  anything'  that  should 
he  proved  erroneous. 

Alx.ut  Ki.JO,  Milton's  "Tractate  of  Education"  was 
written  to  Ilarlli!).  The  educational  method  advocated 
in  It  was  largely  reading.  The  authors  chosen  "would  he 
the  Authors  of  Agriculture,  Cato,  Varro,  and  rolumella; 
for  the  matter  is  most  easy,  and  if  the  language  he  difficult,' 
so  nmch  the  better,  it  is  not  a  difficulty  above  their  years: 
and  here  will  be  an  occasion  of  inciting  and  enabling  thein 
hereafter  to  imjjrove  the  tillage  of  their  country,  to  re- 
cover (he  bad  .soil,  and  to  remedy  the  waste  that  i.s  made 
of  good;  for  this  was  one  of  Hercules's  praises." 

Comenius  (irjO^J-lGTl)  would  "fit  youth  for  the  investi- 
gafinii  of  the  causes  of  things."  He  would  know  the  ex- 
terna!  world:  "Come  forth,  my  son,"  he  .says,  "let  us  go 
into  file  open  air.  There  you  shall  view  what.soever  CJod 
produced  from  the  beginning  and  doth  yet  effect  by  Na- 
ture." In  his  "Didactica  Magna"  he  maintains  "that  a 
garden  should  be  connected  with  every  school,  where  chil- 
dren at  times  can  leisurely  gaze  on  trees,  flowers  and  herbs, 
and  be  taught  to  enjoy  them." 

Jean  Jacques  Rous.seau  pointed  out  the  importance  of 
parden  work  as  an  educational  factor  in  his  "fimile,"  |)ub- 
hsh.'d  ill  \7(V>,  and  Salzman  (1744-1811)  wrote.  "School 
gardens  have  been  laid  out  neither  to  draw  the  attention  of 
pa.ssers  by,  nor  to  give  great  returns,  but  to  instruct." 

For  some  time  Pestalozzi  was  a  farmer  and  employed 
I  his  wards  at  Neuhof  with  field  and  garden  work.  "I  wish," 
he  Slid,  "to  make  my  estate  the  central  point  of  my  agri- 
cultural and  educational  efforts." 


4  AGRICL-LTIUAL  EDUCATION 

F.-llmWrn.  the  Swiss  educiitor  (1771  ]HVi),  estuLlished 
H  s.h.H.1  at  n.ifwvl.  lit-  took  gr.-al  int.Tfst  in  llir  iwasuntry 
'„f  Ins  n.ur.lrv.  TIh'  avowed  ..l.jccl  (.f  his  school  was  de- 
finitely  to  train  the  pupil  for  his  tra«le  or  (K-eupatjon.  Agri- 
culture  was  to  he  the  l.asis  of  the  sehool. 

In  17(51.  the  National  Society  of  Agneulture  in  trance 
advocal.-d  the  api)ointnient  ..f  aurieullural  profess..rs.  and 
charne<l  several  of  its  n.en.l)ers  with  the  mission  to  an.iisc 
and  enlighten  puhli.'  opinion  with  referen.-e  t<.  ajjruultural 
alTairs    As  a  result  of  t  h^s  cainpai^'n  some  lar^je  landowners 
were  in.lueed  to  estal.lish  sch<^)l.s  of  agriculture.    In  1703, 
a  selu.ol  was  organized  at  La  RcK-hette  and,  in  1771,  an- 
other was  estahlislu-d  near  Comi.it-Kne.    In  IHOO.  I-ran(.oi3 
,U.  Neuf<-hateau,  a  former  Minister  of  the  Interior   who 
had  in  mind  the  dangers  to  Kuropean  agriculture  from 
American  competition,  laid  In-fore  Napoleon  an  elaborate 
scheme   for  agricultural   educati.,n  which   he   had  copied 
from  the  Ahlu'  Rozier,  who  had  promulgated  it  in  1770; 
but.  though  it  was  in  the  main  approved,  it  was  never 

carried  into  effect.  ,     .    i 

Campe  (17«]-1S18).  together  with  his  wards.  i)lanted 
about  ten  thousand  trees  during  his  lifetime.  In  1H40, 
Froebel,  who  founded  the  first  kindergarten  at  Thuringia, 
recommended  light  gardening  as  one  of  its  occupations. 

Agriculture  was  placed  on  the  program  of  the  French 
schools  as  an  elective  in  1850.  In  18G6-C7,  after  a  series  of 
bad  harvests,  an  extended  inquiry  was  held,  with  the  result 
that  .schools  of  agriculture  and  horticulture  were  estab- 
lished in  1873.  The  Institut  National  Agronomique  was 
reoi)ened  in  Paris  in  1876.  and  in  1H70,  the  elementary 
principles  of  agriculture  were  included  among  the  obliga- 
tory studies  of  primary  instruction.  This  was  confirmed 
by  the  law  of  188>2,  which  organized  agricultural  instruc- 
tion in  the  primary,  normal,  and  superior  schools  of  the 
country.' 

.    ^  ■     ■  f  1.' !.,_„.;,,„     Rr""r'    \f>n^   vol.  1,  n.  87. 


HISTORICAL  REMEW 


pan 


Miilliall  says,  "It  is  hiinlly  too  much  to  state  thiit  Ilun- 
lias  (lone  more  flian  aiiv<»lhrr  country  in  tlic  way  of 


ilti 


The  third  of  th 


^ta^) 


ai;ri<  iiltural  mIumhs.  ilic  Uiird  of  llicsc  scIumjIs.  «-siat)- 
\i>\n-d  ill  17!)7,  was  for  a  h»ii^'  period  the  model  aj;ri<uhural 
s(  lidiil  ill  Kurope.  In  18  iH  it  was  suppressed  l»y  th«'  Aus- 
trian (ioveriunent  because  all  the  profess«)rs  and  pupils 
tiM»k  part  in  the  strug>?le  for  independence  under  Kossuth. 
Tlic  present  complete  system  of  instruction  in  that  coun- 
try dates  from  the  year  18')0. 

The  work  of  Alhrecht  Thaer  in  Germany  marks  an 
rjKMh  in  the  history  of  (iernian  agriculture.  On  his  farm  at 
("«lle,  in  Hanover,  he  applied  science  and  sound  business 
iiietluxls  so  successfully  that  farmers  from  all  over  the 
Continent  came  to  visit  it.  To  these  visitors  he  l)egan  to 
pi\ f  a{,'ricultural  instruction  in  1S()'2,  and  out  of  the  instruc- 
tion so  begun,  grew  the  Agricultural  Institute  of  thai  town. 
In  1800,  he  founded  the  agricultural  school  at  Moeglin, 
near  Berlin.  This  was  raised  to  the  Royal  Academy  of 
A^'ricullure  in  18i4. 


THE   CONTRIBUTION   OK   AGRICLLTUHAL  SCK'IETIE.S   IN 
AMERICA  ' 

ScH'ieties  and  organizations  of  farmers  and  others  in- 
terested in  agriculture  have  played  a  large  part  in  deter- 
mining iK)licies  and  stimulating  progress.  The  first  society 
for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  was  organized  at  Phila- 
delphia on  March  1,  1785,  and  on  the  4th  of  July  of  the 
same  year  George  Washington  and  Benjamin  Franklin 
were  elected  members.  At  the  same  time,  a  similar  society 
was  formed  in  South  Carolina.  This  organization,  among 
other  steps,  proposed  to  establish  an  exiK-rimental  farm, 
wliich  suggestion  was,  as  far  as  is  known,  the  first  of  the 
kind  in  .American  historj'. 

In  1791,  the  New  York  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 

'  Diilmey,  Agricultural  Education.  Munograpb  li.  St.  Louis  Exposi- 
tion, iyo4. 


'  ^nirrL1TU\L   KDITATION 


Afrrirultural  Arts  and  Mamifiuf uri-s  was  cstahlislml,  atnl 
its  first  volume  of  l'ro<«M'<liii>;H  was  puMi^licd  in  ITK'i.  Iti 
tliis  year  Hic  Mas>a<liusctts  Society  for  the  I'roiiiotioii  of 
A^'rieiiltiire  was  fontied,  and  in  I7!)l  a  similar  soeiely  was 
Ohlalilislu'd  in  ( 'oiuu'c  ticul. 

In  17!)4,  the  I'hihidelphiu  S<Kiety  a|)poinfed  a  eomniillpc 
"to  prepare  a  phui  for  establishing;  the  Stale  S<Kiety  for  the 
promotion  of  apicnhnre.  ronne<tin>;  with  it  the  ethication 
of  the  youth  in  that  most  iini)ortant  art."  One  of  tlie  suj,'- 
^estiofis  of  this  committee  was  "the  endowment  of  pro- 
fessorships, to  1k'  annexed  to  the  rniv«Tsity  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, ami  the  ("ollcu'e  of  Carlisle,  and  other  seminaries  of 
learning,  for  the  pur|)ose  of  teaching'  the  chemical,  philo- 
sophical and  eh-mentary  parts  of  the  theory  of  agriculture." 
Another  siif;j:esti»)n  was  to  u.s<'  the  public  .school  system  of 
the  State  to  educate  the  farmer  in  his  husiness.  "the  coun- 
try school  nuisters  heinj,'  made  Sc<re»aries  of  the  County 
Swieties  and  the  .s<hool  houses  the  |)lace  of  nieetinfj.  aiul 
the  rc|)ositories  of  their  transactions,  motlels,  etc.  The 
Icj^'islature  may  «'njoiii  on  these  schoolmasters,  the  com- 
hinatioti  of  the  sultject  t>f  af^riculture  with  the  other  parts 
of  education.  This  may  he  easily  ('':<■■  '  \  hy  iiil.-K-lucinjr, 
as  .s<-hool-l)ooks.  those  on  this  subject;  and  thereby  making 
it  familiar  to  their  pupils."  These  sujj>,'estions  were  not 
carried  out.  but  that  does  not  <letract  from  their  signifi- 
rance.  This  was  probably  the  first  formal  effort  made  in 
the  I'nited  States  to  present  the  claims  of  ajjricultural  edu- 
cation to  a  legislature,  and  to  incorporate  instruction  in 
apriculture  in  the  course  of  .study  for  the  primary  scIum)1. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the.se  resolutions,  more  than 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years  old.  are  strangely  in  har- 
mony with  present-day  ideals:  rural  .s<h(Mils  as  community 
centers,  correlation  of  agriculture  with  other  .school  sub- 
jects, and  agricultural  textbooks. 

In  1801,  a  memi)er  of  the  Massachusetts  Swiety  sug- 
gested that  agricultural  fairs  should  be  held  at  Cam- 


IIISTOIIICAL    Iir.MEW  J 

IiriiL''"  i"  •Ik"  ^I'riii^  jiiuI  in  tlw  fall.  .mkI  prtMiiiutiiH  should 
l)c  trivii)  for  farm  |)ro<liicts.  'I'liis  sUL't^rslioti  was  not  actrd 
ii[M)ii,  liuwrvtT.  Dr.  'riiorH'tii,  (In-  lir-l  < 'oniiiiis>ioii(T  of 
Tatftits  at  Wa-'ii-ii^tuii,  su^'^'^'st<'<^  ill  iHiH  that  thf  suit-  of 
ni,'ri(iiltiiral  prodiKf  and  of  calth"  woiiM  Ik-  proinotrd  liy 
till'  lioiiiinn  of  fairs  after  tin-  Kn^dish  niannrr.  As  a  result  of 
till"  siin^rcstion,  the  "National  Iiitclli^Tiicer"  o'  thai  year 
rr|inrliMl  that  fairs  wore  held  "in  the  Mall  on  tlie  South  side 
of  the  'liher."  The  first  fair  prov«'d  Mich  a  sue«'ess  tliat  the 
(  itizeiis  themselves  raised  the  .sum  of  s.'iO  for  premiums  for 
tlie  next  one,  whieh  was  held  in  April,  iHO.'j.  The  third  one, 
held  in  NovenilKT  of  Ihe  same  year,  upjx*ar.s  to  have  !,-oen 
the  last. 

In  IH(M),  the  citizens  of  Maryland,  Virj^iiiia,  and  the 
District  of  C'olunihia  formed  the  C'ohimliian  Af^rieultural 
Society,  which  for  many  years  was  actively  enpa^ed  in 
educating  the  farmer,  mainly  throu;,'h  the  aj^ency  of  fairs. 

In  1S17.  the  Berkshire  Aj^riculf ural  Society,  on  the 
iiiotiiin  of  Klkanah  Watson,  |)resented  a  memorial  to  Con- 
gress praying,'  for  "the  estahlishmeiit  of  a  National  Hoard 
of  .\gri(  iilture  in  accordi;iiv«'  with  the  ori;,'iiial  su^j^^estion 
(if  I'resident  Washington."  The  hill  reported  to  the  Hou.sc 
of  Hepresentatives  .vas  promjjlly  defc;!*--  !  by  a  large  ma- 
jority. 

'iiiese  agricultural  societies  were  generally  open  to  all 
interested  in  agriculture,  whether  actively  engaged  in  its 
practice  or  not.  Certain  other  organizations,  designed 
especially  for  farmers,  !iave  grown  up.  Foremost  amongst 
these  are  the  Cirange  (IStJT),  the  Farmers'  .Vlliance  (1875), 
tlie  Farmers'  I'nion  (lSS."i).  and  the  I'atrons  of  Industry 
( 1SS7).  The  Farmers*  National  Congress  has  met  annually 
since  ISHO  and  has  considerably  influenced  legislation  for 
the  benefit  of  rural  communities. 

One  of  the  earliest  results  of  the  formation  of  these  so- 
cieties was  frequent  di.scu.ssion  of  ex{)erinient.s  to  l>e  con- 
ducted for  the  betterment  of  agricultural  practice.  Various 


fMt 


8 


AGRICI'LTTRAL  EDI  CATION 


kinds  of  model  farms,  test-grounds,  and  se<Ml-oontrol  sta- 
tions have  grown  out  of  liie  agricultural  societies.  In 
Europe,  these  experimental  institutions  began  to  separaie 
themselves  into  distinct  organizations  al>out  the  middle 
of  the  past  century.  Early  American  institutions  were 
planned  after  the  experiment  station  organized  in  1851  at 
Mocckern,  near  Leipzig. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   AGRICULXrRAL  TEACHING   IN 
THE   UNITED   STATES 

Now  let  US  consider  some  of  the  more  definite  and  or- 
ganized early  attempts  to  establish  agricultural  education 
in  the  United  States.  The  early  attempts  were  not  always 
received  with  approval;  even  the  fret?  common  sclux)l  sys- 
tem was  bitterly  opj)osed  to  the  encroachment  of  agri- 
culture. As  late  as  1G71,  Governor  Berkeley,  when  ques- 
tioned conr'crning  the  status  of  education  in  the  Colony  of 
Virginia,  said,  "  I  thank  Gcxl  there  are  no  free  schools,  nor 
printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have  these  three  hun- 
dred years,  for  learning  has  brought  disobedience,  and 
heresy,  and  .sects,  into  the  world,  and  printing  has  divulged 
them,  and  libels  against  the  best  government:  God  keep 
us  from  both."  ' 

One  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  agricultural  education 
was  Benjamin  Franklin.  In  his  "Prop*  als  Relative  to 
the  Education  of  Youth  in  Pennsylvania,"  issued  in  1749, 
he  wrote,  "While  they  are  reading  natural  history,  might 
not  a  little  gardening,  planting,  grafting,  and  inoculating 
be  taught  and  practised,  and  now  and  then  excursions 
made  to  the  neighbouring  pl^mtations  of  the  best  farmers, 
their  methods  observed  and  reasoned  ui>on  for  the  informa- 
tion of  youth,  the  improvement  of  agriculture  being  useful 
to  all  and  skill  in  it  no  di.sparagement  to  any?" 

In  1751,  a  prospectus  was  i.ssued  i;y  William  Smith  con- 
taining a  plan  designed  as  a  model  for  colleges.  This  plan 
'  Destor,  History  of  Education  in  'he  ''  .S7a/w,  p.  10. 


HISTORICAL   REVIEW 


m 


I 


provided  for  instruction  in  the  chenn'stry  of  apriculture  and 
was  carried  out  to  sonic  extent  in  the  Philadelphia  Academy 
(I'nivcrsity  of  Pennsylvania). 

In  the  original  prospectus  of  King's  Collepr  (Columhia 
I'nivcrsity),  "husbandry  and  commerce"  and  "agricul- 
ture and  merchandize,"  arc  mentioned  in  the  "I^iws  and 
Orders"  adopted  by  the  Governors,  June  3,  1755,  In  1792, 
the  Chair  of  Botany  and  Agriculture  was  held  by  Samuel 
I^iitham  Mitchell,  M.D.  In  describing  a  summer  course 
in  botany  Dr.  Mitchell  says:  "An  attempt  is  made  by  the 
Professor,  who  is  a  practical  farmer,  to  elucidate  and  ex- 
pound the  economy  of  plants,  their  affinity  to  animals  and 
the  organization,  excitability,  stimuli,  life  diseases,  and 
death  of  both  classes  of  })eings.  The  physiology  of  plants 
...  is  therefore  particularly  enlarged  upon  as  connected 
with  gardening  and  farming." 

The  first  agricultural  school  in  North  America, »  with 
the  exception  of  the  "Ixsser  Seminary,"  to  be  afterwards 
noted,  which  did  actual  work  was  probably  the  Gardiner 
ryceuin  established  at  Gardiner,  Maine,  in  1821.  The  first 
term  of  school  l)egan  January  1, 1823,  with  twenty  pupils. 
In  1825,  the  legislature  appropriated  $1000  a  year  for  three 
years.  In  1828,  this  grant  was  extended  for  three  years 
longer.  This  was  probably  the  first  state  grant  made  in 
the  United  States  for  agricultural  and  technical  education. 
In  1821,  the  school  had  an  attendance  of  fifty-three  persons. 
That  year  a  boarding-hou.se  was  erected  at  which  students 
could  have  board  and  washing  for  $1.25  a  week,  and  a 
room  furnished  with  chairs  and  tables  and  a  cot  and  mat- 
tress for  each  individual  for  twenty-five  cents  a  week.  In 
1S25,  there  were  one  hundretl  and  twenty  students.  The 
school  continued  with  varj-ing  success  till  1832,  when  it 
had  to  be  closed  owing  to  lack  of  public  .support. 

In  1825,  a  school  was  established  at  New  Harmony, 
Indiana,  by  William  Maclure,  in  connection  with  the  so- 
*  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin  C.   I'JL'J. 


r 


10 


AGRICITTI'RAL  ED  ['CATION 


cialistic  exporiment  known  as  tho  "Now  Harmony  Move- 
ment." Maclure  plai-ed  tlie  school  in  charge  of  Joseph 
Nccf,  who  had  !)«'«■»  brought  to  I'hihi(lcl|)hia  in  IHOCi  with 
the  object  of  infro(hicing  the  methods  of  teaching  ad- 
vocated by  Pestalozzi.  Ample  equipment,  consisting  of 
dormitories,  hooks,  nmseums,  shops,  ex[)erimental  plots, 
and  other  facilities,  was  provided,  I)ut  owing  to  religious 
strife  and  intolerance  the  experiment  was  not  successful. 

From  18'.i7  to  lS3-t,  the  Oneida  Manual  Lal)or  Institute 
was  conducted  by  George  Washington  (lale.  The  instruc- 
tion included  [practice  in  both  carpentry  and  agriculture. 

In  1838,  six  thousand  signatures  were  attached  to  a 
petition  sent  to  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York 
praying  for  the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  school. 
The  committee  to  which  the  petition  was  referred  de- 
plored "that  there  is  no  school,  no  seminary,  no  depart- 
ment of  any  sclux)l  in  which  the  science  of  agriculture  is 
taught."  ' 

In  18 n,  a  professorship  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Veg- 
etable and  Aniniiil  I'iiysiology,  was  established  at  Yale. 

In  18a7,  th<'  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College  wa.s 
founded  at  Lansing,  with  G7G  acres  of  heavily  timliered 
land.  This  was  the  first  of  the  Agricultural  and  Mechani- 
cal Colleges,  which,  owing  to  the  encouragement  of  the 
Land  Grant  Act,  are  now  to  be  found  in  every  State  in  the 
Union. 

Public  school  agriculture  began  with  the  school-garden 
movement  in  Germany  about  eighty-five  years  ago.  The 
organized  effort  now  in  progress  in  the  United  States  to 
introduce  the  subject  into  the  elementary  schools  dates 
from  al)out  1900,  although  the  value  of  the  subject  wa.s 
rec()gnize<i  as  early  as  1844.  In  a  preface  to  the  earliest 
textl)ook,  "The  .Vgricultural  Reader  Designed  for  the  Use 
of  Schools,"  by  Daniel  Adams,  M.D..  Boston,  published 

'  I)al)ncy,  Agriculliirat  Educalion.  Monograph  li.  St.  Louis  Exposi- 
tion, lUUi. 


HISTORICAL   REMEW 


11 


in  IS24,  tlic  aiitlior  quotes  Dr.  Aptliorj)  to  I  ho  effort  that 
*•  A^rricii!  ro  and  the  (iospol  aro  the  two  great  instru- 
nKtitsof  Divine  Providence  to  (heck  the  voluptuousness 
and  exorcise  tlie  virtues  of  man."  * 


TIIK   GROWTH   OF  TUE   MOVEMENT   IN   CAN.\DA 

•Apparently  agricultural  education  in  North  America 
had  its  beginning  in  the  farm  school  established  by  Francois 
<if  Laval,  the  first  BisJio])  of  Canada,  about  IGOS,  or  near 
tliat  date.  He  established  the  "Lesser  Seminary,"  where 
"the  children  of  artisans  and  i)easants  were  taught  farm- 
ing, and  the  various  mechanical  arts,  and  thoroughly 
grounded  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church."  ^  According  to 
I'arknian,  the  school  had  not  much  success  in  the  direction 
inchoated. 

In  IH3C,  a  school  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Legislative 
Assonibly  of  Upper  Canada  "to  authorize  the  trustees  of 
any  school  district  to  raise,  levy,  and  colle«t  the  moneys 
as  voted,  and  therewith  to  lease  or  purchase  a  lot  or  pared 
of  l.ind  or  farming  utensils,  seeds,  grains  and  grasses  for  the 
UM-  of  the  teachers  of  the  school,  or  to  be  annually  appor- 
tioned among  the  scholars  of  the  school  or  otherwise  em- 
ployed and  occupied  for  the  jjrofit  and  instruction  of  the 
school,  or  parts  thereof  in  horticulture,  agriculture,  or  in 
otherwise  growing  plants,  fruits,  grasses,  and  grains  as  the 
Trustees,  together  with  the  school  teacher  for  the  time 
hoing.  may  think  fit."^ 

In  1847,  when  the  first  normal  school  was  established  at 
Toronto,  arrangements  were  made  to  give  the  subjwt  of 
agnoiilture  a  prominent  place.  Daily  lectures  were  given  in 
a-riciiltural  chemistry,  demonstration  plots  were  laid  out, 
and  practical  exi)oriments  in  field  crops  and  fertilizers  were 
conducted.    In   1849,  Lord  Elgin,  the  Governor-General, 

'  St.it,-  Su|HTint.-n(l.-nt  n{  Ful.li,-  Instruction.  .Vebraska.  Report,  1910. 

r.irkmaii.  The  Old  lUijimc  in  Canada. 
'  IhKumcntary  History  of  Education  in  Upper  Canada,  vol.  i.p.3ii. 


u 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


offered  two  afjriculturul  prizes  of  five  poi  and  three 

I)<)unds,  respertively.  to  the  two  students  ,io  -hoiild  at 
the  end  of  each  halt"  year  pass  the  best  examination  in  the 
sut)jeet  of  a<;ricultural  eheniistry.' 

In  1840  an  af^rieultural  reader  desif^ned  for  the  use  of 
schools  was  j)uhlished  by  Mr.  John  Simpson  of  Niagara 
Falls.  In  1870,  the  second  textbook  was  issued.  Tliis  was 
Dr.  Rj-erson's  "First  Lessons  in  Agriculture."  The  third 
textbook  was  "Public  School  Agriculture,"  by  Mills  and 
Shaw.  This  was  authorized  by  the  Minister  of  Education 
for  use  in  the  public  schools  of  Ontario,  and  was  the  first 
official  recognition  of  the  subject  in  elementary  schools. 
In  1898,  the  fourth  textbook,  "Agriculture,"  by  C.  C. 
James,  now  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  the  Domin- 
ion, was  published,  and  authorized  for  use  in  "any  high 
school  or  public  school  in  Ontario,  if  so  ordered  by  the 
Trustees." 

Agricultural  colleges,  the  first  of  which  was  established 
in  1871',  are  now  at  work  in  every  f)rovince.  One  of  these, 
at  Guclpl\  in  the  J*rovince  of  Ontario,  is  of  world-wide 
reputation. 

In  1893,  the  first  summer  school  for  teachers  was  held 
at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College.  Thirty-four  teachers 
attended,  and  they  received  four  weeks  of  instruction  in 
agriculture.  Owing  to  certain  changes  in  the  regulations 
regarding  the  teaching  of  the  subject  in  the  schools,  only 
seven  teachers  attended  the  next  year  and  the  classes  were 
discontinued. 

In  1899,  the  regulations  amending  the  public  school 
course  of  study  made  agriculture  obligatory  in  rural  schools 
in  forms  -1  and  5.  In  form  5  a  textbook  was  to  be  used,  and 
in  form  4  the  subject  was  to  be  taught  by  conversation. 
Since  1899,  great  progress  has  been  made,  as  will  be  shown 
in  later  discussions. 

*  Documentary  Uistory  o^  Education  in  Upper  Canada,  vol.  8,  p. 
2J7. 


HISTORICAL  RE\TEW 


IS 


NATIONAL   LEGISLATIVE    ENACTMENTS   IN   THE   UNITED 

STATES 

The  more  important  lof^i.slativc  enactments  which  have 
iniulc  prof^ress  possil)le,  particularly  in  the  direction  of 
hitllicr  c(hication,  may  now  he  considered.  In  1K,'KJ,  the 
Patent  Office  was  made  a  sej)arate  bureau,  and  Henry  L. 
Kllsworth,  a  practical  farmer  of  Connecticut,  was  made 
Coinmissioner.  lie  found  one  of  his  duties  to  be  the  dis- 
trii)uti()n  of  seeds  and  plants.  So  impressed  was  he  with  the 
needs  of  the  people  of  the  Western  prairies,  that  without 
the  autiiority  of  (,'onf»ress,  and  outside  of  business  hours, 
he  collected  seeds  and  plants  which  he  distributed  to 
f.-inners  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  but  esj)ecially  to 
those  in  the  West,  using  the  postal  franks  of  members  of 
Congress  for  this  purpose.  An  appropriation  of  $1000  was 
made  by  the  Twenty-fifth  Congress  from  the  Patent  Office 
Fund,  "  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  distributing  seeds, 
prosecuting  agricultural  investigation,  and  procuring  agri- 
cultural statistics."  The  first  separate  appropriation  made 
by  Congress  for  agriculture  was  in  18o4,  when  the  sum  of 
$;}.j,000  was  voted.' 

The  Morrill  Acts.  —  December  14,  1857,  may  be  looked 
upcn  as  the  "red-letter"  day  in  agricultural  education  in 
the  United  States.  On  that  date,  Justin  S.  Morrill  intro- 
duced his  first  bill  into  the  National  Congress.  This  au- 
thorized the  establishment  of  colleges  in  all  the  states,  and 
for  their  maintenance  provided  ^20,000  acres  of  public  lands 
for  each  member  of  Congress.  The  bill  was  referred  to  the 
House  Committee  on  Public  Lands,  which  i)resenle<l  an 
adverse  report.  Notwitlistanding  this,  the  bill  passed  both 
houses  at  the  following  session,  but  was  vetoed  by  Presi- 
dent Buchanan.  In  December,  1861,  Mr.  Morrill  intro- 
duced a  new  bill  in  which  the  20,000  acres  was  increased  to 

'  I)al)iiey,  Agriculiurd  Education.  Monograph  12.  St.  Louis  Exposi- 
tion, VJOi. 


14 


AGRICULTL'RAL  EDUCATION 


30.000.  In  spite  of  another  adverse  report  l>y  tlie  House 
Coimnittee,  tlie  bill  passed  both  houses  and  was  approved 
by  President  Lincoln.  The  eireunistanccs  were  dramatic, 
and  history  hardly  presents  a  parallel.  In  the  midst  of  the 
excitement  of  a  great  war,  the  peoj)le  paused  to  give  ade- 
quate consideration  to  the  (piestion  of  providing  means  for 
the  establishment  of  a  sound  system  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion. 

The  object  of  the  grant  is  exj)ressed  in  terms  so  broad 
that  they  have  led  to  considerable  controversy.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  act  was  to  provide  for  "the  t..Jowmcnt,  sup- 
j)ort,  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college  where  the 
leading  object  shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scientific 
and  classical  studies,  and  including  military  tactics,  to 
teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agricul- 
ture and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  such  manner  as  the  leg- 
islatures of  the  states  may  respectively  prescribe,  in  rrder 
to  j)romote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  indus- 
trial classes  in  the  .several  pursuits  and  nrofessions  in  life." 

The  second  Morrill  .Vet  was  ai)prove(l  by  President  Har- 
rison on  .Vugu.st  30,  1890,  and  provided  $1.5,000  annually, 
with  an  increase  of  $1000  each  year  until  the  aj)propria- 
tion  should  become  $'25,000  to  each  State,  the  money  to 
be  taken  out  of  the  funds  derive<l  from  the  .sale  of  public 
lands.  The  act  says  that  this  sum  is  to  be  applied  "only 
to  instruction  in  agriculture,  the  mechanic  arts,  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  the  various  branches  of  mathematical, 
physical,  natural,  and  economic  science,  with  special  ref- 
erence to  their  application  in  the  industries  of  life,  and  to 
the  facilities  for  such  instruction." 

The  establishment  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  the 
United  Slates.  —  In  the  same  year  (18(54)  that  the  first 
Morrill  Act  was  passed,  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
was  established,  but  not  as  an  independent  department  of 
the  Government.  Its  chief  officer  was  styled  "Conunis- 
siouer  of  Agriculture."    By  the  act  creating  the  depart- 


inSTORICAL   REVIEW 


15 


iticnt,  llic  duties  of  the  department  were  "to  acquire  and 
(lifTiise  i.niong  the  {)eopk'  of  llie  I  iiited  States  useful  iu- 
furiiiation  on  subjects  connected  with  agriculture  in  the 
nii»t  generous  and  comprehensive  sense  of  the  word,  and  to 
j)ro('ure  and  [)ropagate  among  the  i)eople  new  and  valuable 
srcd^  and  plants."  In  188!),  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture was  raised  to  an  executive  departmeut  and  its  chi(f 
oiliccr,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  was  given  a  seat  in  the 
i         i'n>idciit's  Cabinet. 

The  Experiment  Station  Acl^s.  —  Next  in  importance  to 
tlic  Morrill  .Vets  comes  the  Hatch  Act  of  1887.  This  act 
:i|)|»n)i)riates  $lo.000  to  each  State  for  the  purpose  of 
(■(iiidijcting  experiments  and  research.  In  1888,  the  Office 
of  Kxpcriment  Stations  became  a  separate  bureau  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  serve  as  the  official  head  of 
iill  the  experiment  stations  receiving  the  benefits  of  the  act. 
There  had  been  experiment  stations  Iwfore  this.  The  first 
one  supported  by  the  State,  was  in  Connecticut,  where 
an  appropriation  therefor  was  made  by  the  legislature  in 
IS7.1.  Prior  to  1888,  there  had  been  twenty  experiment 
stations  in  the  I'nited  States,  but  in  that  year  alone,  owing 
to  the  encouragement  of  the  Hatch  Act,  twenty-six  new 
ones  were  established.' 

The  Adams  Act  of  1906,  provides  still  further  aid  for 
research.  This  act  appropriates  $.5000  annually,  with  an 
increase  of  $2000  each  year  until  the  '■.i  i  of  $30,000  shall 
lia\  e  been  reached.  When  the  Adams  Fund  has  matured, 
the  I'nited  States  Government  will  be  appropriating  about 
one  and  a  half  million  dollars  annually  for  exi)eriment 
.station  work.  In  addition  to  this,  the  individual  states 
are  now  appropriating  more  for  research  thar.  the  Federal 
(•Dvernment  appropriates. 

The  Smilh-Lercr  Bill. — This  act  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  agricultural  extension  was  approved  May  8,  1914, 
by  President  Wilson.     One  college  in  each  state,  to  be 
'  Carver,  Principlet  of  Rural  Eco.^mics,  p.  108. 


IL: 


16 


AGRICl'LTUR^VL  EDUCATION 


designated  by  the  C  ivernor  as  the  recipient  of  the  funds, 
is  to  receive  {jerjK'tually  from  the  Federal  Government 
.$10,000  aiitiually  without  requiring  an  additional  appro- 
priation from  the  State.  The  act  also  makes  provision  for 
additional  annual  appropriations,  based  on  the  rural  popu- 
lation. To  share  in  these  additional  funds,  the  Stale  must 
duplicate  the  additional  amount  granted  l)y  the  Federal 
Government.  The  purpose  of  the  act  is  to  provide  for 
cooperative  agricultural  extension  work.  The  instruction 
is  to  be  given  only  to  persons  not  attending  or  resident  in 
any  of  the  colleges.  None  of  the  money  is  to  be  used  for 
"the  purchase,  erection,  or  the  repair  of  buildings,  or  the 
purchase  or  rental  of  land,  or  in  college  course  teaching, 
promoting  agricultural  trains,  or  other  purposes  not  si>eci- 
fied  in  the  act,  and  not  more  than  five  per  cent  of  each  an- 
nual appropriation  shall  l)e  applied  to  the  printing  and  dis- 
tribution of  publications."  This  act  marks  the  third  great 
step  in  federal  aid  to  agriculture. 


Such,  in  brief,  is  the  history  of  the  movement.  The  agri- 
cultural colleges  and  experiment  stations  are  now  on  a 
solid  foundation  and  their  progress  is  assured.  The  coun- 
try is  now  in  a  position  to  devote  itself  to  the  no  less  im- 
portant problem  of  primary  and  secondary  agricultural 
education,  to  which  the  National  Congress  is  already  ad- 
dressing itself. 


CHAPTER  II 


SOME   CONDITIONS   OF    RURAL    LIFE 

TriF  ooonomic  and  so<-iul  conditions  of  rural  life  affect 
I)r()^'re.s.s  in  education.  This  l)eing  so,  and  it  seems  gener- 
ally admitted,  it  l)ecomes  i)ertinent  to  inquire  what  these 
conditions  are  and,  in  so  far  as  they  are  hindrances  to  prog- 
ress, how  they  can  be  improved. 

THE   DECLINE    IN    RURAL    rOPl'LATION 

The  decHne  in  rural  iMiiJulalion  is  the  first  condition 
which  we  may  consider.  From  the  prominence  given  to  its 
discussion  in  rw-ent  years,  it  would  almost  appear  that  we 
are  faced  with  a  new  problem.  In  the  I'nited  States  the  de- 
cline has  been  most  marke<l  since  18S0;  but  it  is  an  ancient 
problem.  Plutarch,  in  his  "Pnccepta  Politica,"  protested 
a^'ainst  the  threatened  invasion  of  cities.  Cicero  deplored 
the  de-population  of  rural  districts.  Before  the  Christian 
era,  the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus  .saw  that  his  empire 
was  l)eing  undermined  and  the  strength  of  the  nation  .sapped 
by  the  migration  of  p)eople  from  the  country  to  the  city, 
and  he  summoned  the  poets  of  the  nation  to  sing  of  the 
beauties  and  profit^  •"  country  life  in  order  to  entice  people 
back  to  the  Iand.» 

in  the  United  States  the  decHne  in  population  is  shown 
as  follows  :  ^  — 

1910    1900    1890    1880 


t'rban 46.3 

Kural 53.7 


40.5 
59.5 


3«.I     29.5 
63.9     70.5 


During  the  last  cen.sus  period  (1900-10),  the  increase  in 
urban  population  was  34.8  per  cent,  while  the  increase  in 
niral  population  was  only  11.2  per  cent. 

I'irst  I  istrict  Norma!  Sch(X>I,  Kirk.«viIIo,  MLssouri.   Bulletin.    1911. 
'  Thirtcta''  Census  of  the  United  SUlcs.  I'opulutwn. 


18 


AGRICILTIU.VL  EDICATION 


('ana<la,  uIiIkhikIi  -'i  much  younncr  coiuitrj',  has  already 
Im'^,'uii  to  show  the  same  fendincy.'  From  I'JOl  to  11)11, 
thi-  urhaii  ixipulation  iiuTfascd  iH  percent,  while  the  rural 
population  increased  only  17. 0  per  cent.  This  difference 
In-lween  tlie  url>an  and  the  rural  in(;reii.se  is  all  the  more 
striking  wlu-n  it  is  reniemhered  that  during  this  period 
large  tracts  of  virgin  land  were  o|)oned  up  for  settlement. 
The  prairies  are  looked  ui)<)n  as  almost  purely  agricultural, 
yet  Saskatchewan  added  389  |)er  cent  to  her  rural  popula- 
tion, and  (>48  {x-r  cernt  to  her  urban  po|)uiation.  AllK'rta, 
while  ad<iing  iH!)  per  cent  to  her  rural  growth,  inrrcjused  by 
588  |KT  cent  in  urban  growth.  Manitoba,  rich  in  unwcu- 
pied  land,  added  70,.'>11  to  her  farms  and  hamlets,  while 
to  her  villages,  towns,  and  cities  were  aihled  H9,89!2.  The 
Province  of  Quebec,  although  largely  agricultural,  gained 
39,9.>1  in  the  rural  districts,  but  added  .'$13,863  to  the  city 
population.^ 

The  Canadian  Royal  Commis-sion  on  Industrial  and 
Technical  Education,  following  its  investigations,  reported 
this  tendency  obs«Tved  in  every  country  visited,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Denmark.' 

The  President  of  the  Georgia  Club,  at  the  Athens  State 
Normal  School,  writes,  "This  loss  of  jxipulation  menaces 
every  business  and  social  interest  in  the  rural  districts. 
Stores  and  dwellings  become  vacant,  rents  decline,  trade 
drops  off,  land  values  decrca.se,  tenants  become  restless, 
schools  and  churches  dwindle,  life  and  enterprise  dro^  s  into 
stagnation  and  decay.  Witness  the  282  pastorless  churches 
in  Maine,  many  of  them  used  as  cheese  factories,  road 
houses,  and  dance  halls.  .  .  .  Witness  in  Iowa  the  2500 
country  schools  in  which  the  attendance  has  dwindled  to 
ten  pupils  or  fewer.   Witness  the  1032  pastorless  churches 


'  CVn-sus  of  Canada,  1911,  vol.  1. 
'  Macdou^all.  John.  Rural  Life  in  Canada. 

'  Hoyiil  ('oiuiui.s.>ion  on  Irdubtrial  and  Technical  Education.  Report, 
parU)  I  and  u.  Uttawu,  I'Jl'i. 


SOME  CONDITIONS  OF   RUILVL   LIFE  10 

of  ono  (Icnomination  in  the  South,  and  the  IGOO  uhundoned 
chiinhos  in  Illinois. "  ' 


THE   8IlIfT   IN    UtRAL   POPUL.\TION 

The  moving  country  population  is  coni{>osed  mainly  of 
three  distinct  classes:  — 

1  Tliose  who  move  from  the  country  to  the  city  or  town. 
To  some  extent  this  movement  will  always  be  inevitable. 
If  will  j)robably  Iw  considerably  lessened  when  a  more  even 
l)alaii(e  is  struck  between  the  educational,  social,  recrea- 
f  iotial.  and  economic  conditions  now  existing  in  the  country 
and  in  the  town.  Many  fanners  who  have  acquired  a  com- 
I)etenee  retire  from  the  farm  to  the  city.  .\s  a  rule  this  re- 
moval is  di.sapiM)inting  to  all  parties  concerned.  The  farm- 
ers themselves  find  it  difficult  to  pass  their  time  pn)fitably, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  their  lifelong  activities;  the  com- 
miiiiilies  into  which  they  move  do  not  absorb  them  into 
their  social  and  municipal  life;  and  the  districts  from  which 
they  come  are  deprived  of  the  guidance  and  supfwrt  which 
their  experience  should  enable  them  to  give. 

'i.  Those  who  move  from  the  farms  of  the  older  to  those 
of  tlie  more  newly  settled  parts  of  the  country.  In  the 
midst  of  prosperous  industrial  districts  offering  great  mar- 
kefs,  much  land  that  was  once  cultivated  now  lies  idle, 
owing  to  the  failure  to  fertilize.  This  lo.ss  of  fertility  is  fast 
becoming  a  serious  problem.  In  1911,  an  agricultural 
survey  was  made  into  the  condition  of  1912  farms  .scattered 
throughout  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  report  of  this 
investigation  states  that,  "in  most  of  the  Provinces  the 
farmers  are  living  on  the  accumulated  capital  which  na- 
ture provided  in  the  soil,  leaving  their  lands  poorer  be- 
cause they  had  been  on  them."  Even  in  Manitoba,  46  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  ac;jiowledge  a  marked  decrease  in 
tlie  amount  produced  per  acre.  The  area  under  cultiva- 


'  Confcrcncf  for  Education  in  the  South. 
Auuual  .Meotinif. 


Proceedings  of  Fourteenth 


20 


AGRirrLTlRVL  EDl'CATION 


tion  in  tlio  W«'st  —  MariitolKi,  Saskatchrwiin,  and  AllMTta 
—  iiunNiscd  'J(!!)  pir  <(iil  in  tin-  last  <lc<  ii<lc.  while  the 
amount  prtidiic'il  iri(  rr.is('(|  only  \H.'>  per  cnit.' 

Siiicf  1!KM).  ill  tlic  I  uitrd  Slates  the  yi«-ld  of  wheat  has 
ceased  to  increase,  wliile  the  muiuIkt  of  mouths  t«)  Ik'  fed 
has  increased  from  (i.i.OOO.OOO  to  !)J.()0(),()()().  The  exports 
of  wh«'at,  U[)  to  1!M).'{,  were,  on  an  av  rap\  some  1!)H,(MM),- 
000  liushels,  whereas  to-<hiy  they  stand  at  scarcely  .').') ,000,- 
000  to  70,000.000.^  It  is  said  that  "within  a  hundre<l  miles 
of  the  s|)ot  wliere  the  first  pcrnuinent  Knj^lisli  settlement 
was  made,  in  what  is  now  the  I'liited  Slates,  one  can  to-day 
huy  hun<lreds  of  thousands  «)f  acres  of  arable  land  at  less 
than  ii<10  |)or  acre  —  land  that  was  once  valued  at  $.'jO  per 
acre,  and  whi<h  would  he  now  worth  more  than  $100  had 
its  fertility  heen  maintained."' 

13.  Those  who  are  moving'  hack  from  the  West  to  settle 
on  Eastern  farms.  This  mif^ration  is  rapidly  liecominj:  im- 
portant. In  some  seel  ions  of  New  York  State,  for  example, 
more  farms  arc  l)ein>,'  sold  to  farmers  from  the  West  than 
to  any  other  class  of  buyers. 


THE  WITNES.S  OF  THE  COrXTKY  CflfRriT 
The  condition  of  the  churches  in  the  rural  districts  is 
another  evidence  of  this  decline  in  population.  The  Ohio 
Rural  Life  Survey  of  19H  .shows  that  there  were  eight 
hundred  abandoned  churches  in  that  state.  There  is  not  a 
county  in  the  .state  in  which  one  half  of  the  congregations 
are  even  holding  th'/ir  own  in  numl>ers.  In  several  counties 
not  ten  per  cent  are  growing.  In  ten  counties,  with  a  total 
of  three  hundred  and  ninety-four  congregations,  not  one 
twentieth  of  the  churches  had  resident  ministers.  The 
ministers  live  in  towns  and  go  to  the  country  to  preach, 
returning  to  town  at  the  earliest  possible  moment;  conse- 

'  Commission  of  Coniwrviition.  Report,  vol.  in.  p.  57.  Ott.awa,  Canada. 

*  Mi'linc,  M.,  Tcntli  International  Con^jr^'ss  of  .Xgritullure. 

•  Americ-n  Academy  cf  pyUtiisiJ  aiKi  Sssi.i!  Srion  e.  A 


iih,  p.  C31. 


i 


SOME    (ONDITIONS  OF    HI  UAL    LIFE  «1 

qiKiifly.  their  outlook  is  uriian.  not  rural.  Ninoty-six  town- 
.slii|)s  in  tlu'M- ten  coiiritii's,  (•()m|)ri>iii^'  nearly  fmir  tliou- 
fumd  s<iiiar«'  iniK's,  are  without  a  rf.sidi-nl  minister  in  the 
rural  ilistricts. 

In  the  Stair  of  New  Hatnpshire,  'iiV.i  ehunhes  do  not 
raise  over  ^<00  for  ministerial  salaries.  IH  raise  less  than 
8HM).  (i,>  less  than  sjCJOO,  Zr,  less  than  ii<4()().  and  a  few  others 
less  than  A 1 00.  Forty-one  |Mr  cent  of  the  hailing  denomi- 
nations in  this  state  do  not  rais«' an  amount  for  mitiisters' 
salaries  e(|ua!  to  the  wages  of  eonunon  lahor.  .\n  investijju- 
tiun  made  in  1910.  .sliows  that  outsideof  one  hundre<l  of  the 
lar^e  centers,  the  salaries  of  Metliodist  mini.sters  average 
)!(.>7;{  a  year.' 

According' to  a  recent  edit(.rial  in  the  *'()utl(M>k."  w'KMMK) 
church  Itiiildin^js  are  now  out  of  use  in  the  Iriited  States, 
as  an  indication  of  changing,'  In-licfs  and  conditions,  and 
there  are  10,000  more  that  ought  to  he  out  of  use.' 

A  remarkuMe  likeness  exists  iH-tween  t!ie  diaracter  of 
the  rural  churches  in  .\meri<a  and  the  tyi)e  of  agriculture 
which  prevails.  "  In  the  piom-er  stage,  agriculture  has  con- 
sisted ver>-  largely  in  harvesting  the  soil,  and  very  little 
attention  has  Ijeen  paid  to  .soil  building.  Similarly,  the  pio- 
neer churches  have  too  generally  followed  the  plan  of  har- 
vesting a  meml)ership  by  revivalistic  meth(jd.s.  and  have 
given  t(M)  little  attention  to  membership  building.  .  .  .  They 
.seem  to  have  relied  more  upon  making  converts  among 
mature  reprobates  than  upon  the  training  of  successive 
generations  of  boys  and  girls  into  g(M>d  neighl)ours.  into 
elficient  fanners,  —  in  short,  into  g(M)d  citizen.s,  such  as 
build  up  a  community,  increa.se  the  production  of  its  farms, 
and  make  it  a  desirable  place  in  which  to  live."'  Statis- 
tics have  been  cited  to  show  the  parallelism  of  church 
and  farm  as  regards  prosperity. 

•  Macdougall,  John.   Rural  Life  in  Canada. 

'  ("arn«-y,  Matn'!.    Country  l.ifr  and  the  Country  School. 

'  Carver.  Thomas  Nixon.   Frinciiilea  of  Rural  Economict. 


1 


AGRICUl.TURAL  EDUCATION 


SOME  CONTRIBUTING   rAT'SEH  OF  THE   DECLINE  IN 
POIHLATION 

Among  the  causes  that  may  be  cited  to  account  for  this 
decline  in  rural  popuhition  are  the  following:  — 

The  nnmberof  men  required  on  the  land  is  less  than  for- 
merly. — The  use  of  improved  machinerj'  on  the  farm  has  re- 
duced the  number  of  units  of  human  labor  required  on  the 
land  to  produce  a  given  quantity  of  food  below  that  for- 
merly required.  The  reduction  of  the  farming  population 
of  the  United  States  from  70.5  per  cent  in  18H0.  to  53.7  jjer 
cent  in  1910,  represents  a  change  from  agriculture  to  other 
occupations  of  a  very  large  numlK-r  of  people.  The  ef- 
fect of  the  introduction  of  machinerj'  is  to  displace  labor 
or  to  increase  production,  or  both.  The  sower  is  no  longer 
seen  in  the  field.  Machines  accomplish,  in  one  fifth  to  one 
quarter  the  time,  the  work  that  the  old  hand-sower  could 
do.  The  modern  harvester  does  the  work  of  eight  men, 
while  the  threshing  machine  displaces  14  to  i9  farm  labor- 
ers.' Professor  Fiskc  has  saitl,  "  It  was  a  dramatic  moment 
in  history,  when  at  the  Paris  Exhii)ition  of  '55  a  hopeless 
contest  was  waged  between  six  sturdy  workmen  with  the 
old  hand-flail,  and  threshing  madiines  from  four  different 
countries.  In  the  half-day  test  the  six  men  threshed  out  by 
hand  CO  liters  of  wheat,  wliile  a  sin;;le  American  with  his 
machine  threshed  740  liters,  and  easily  led  all  contestants." 

Fifty  years  ago  it  required  four  and  a  half  hours  of  labor 
to  produce  a  bushel  of  corn;  now  it  requires  about  41 
minutes.  The  cost  then  was  351^4  cents,  now  it  is  103^ 
cei-.s.  Thirty-five  and  one  half  hours  were  then  required 
to  jjroduce  a  ton  of  hay,  now  only  eleven  hours  and  thirty- 
four  minutes  are  required;  and  the  difference  in  the  cost  is 
$1.77.  The  cost  of  labor  saved  in  the  production  of  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  hay,  compared  with  fifty 
years  ago,  is  estimated  to  be  $(581,000,000.* 

•  Fi.skc,  WaltiT.    The  Challenge  of  the  Country. 

*  Bailey,  Liberty  HyJe.   Cydupadia  of  American  Agriculture,  vol.  4. 


SOME   CONDITIONS   OF  RURVL   LIFE 


23 


The  highest  mechanical  genius  is  now  being  devoted  to 
the  invention  and  improvement  of  farm  machinery,  and 
with  steam,  electric,  and  other  power  coming  into  general 
use.  the  rate  of  decline  of  the  rural  population  from  this 
cause  may  be  still  further  accelerated. 

Lack  of  social  opportunities.  —  Lack  of  social  opportuni- 
ties and  intellectual  stimulus,  owing  to  the  isolation  of  farm 
lift',  is  another  contributing  cause  of  rural  decline.  Rural 
life  on  the  North  American  continent  differs  considerably 
from  that  in  the  older  i)arts  of  the  world.  There  the  people 
dwell  in  hamlets  and  villages;  here,  on  isolated  farms.  In 
Ciiriada.  the  farm  homes  are  farther  apart  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world.  In  the  most  iK)pulous  province  there  are 
counties  with  13.1  and  d.i  persons  to  the  square  mile, 
while  the  rural  population  of  the  United  States  is  15  to  the 
square  mile.' 

The  President  of  the  Georgia  Club  states  that  letters 
sent  some  time  ago  to  the  superintendents  of  state  insane 
asylums,  revealed  the  fact  that  seventy  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  patients  were  the  wives  and  daughters  of  farmer? 
Their  presence  in  the  asylums  is  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the 
state  of  isolation  in  which  they  have  lived.* 

P'ortunately  there  are  signs  that  this  state  of  isolation  is 
iM'ing  rai)idly  changed.  Rural  mail  delivery,  the  farm  tele- 
]>hone,  radial  lines  through  the  country  districts,  are  all 
bringing  about  great  changes  without  materially  robbing 
the  farm  of  its  manifest  advantages  for  family  life.  If  these 
advantages  can  be  extended  to  every  rural  community  and 
the  evils  of  isolation  reduced  to  a  minimum,  other  rural 
problems  will  be  rendered  much  easier  of  .solution. 

In  the  effort  hitherto  put  forth  to  improve  farm  condi- 
tions, we  have  been  training  our  youth  to  be  merely  better 
producers.  This  is,  of  course,  the  6rst  thing  to  be  done;  but 

'  ^^a<•<^ougall,  John.   Rural  Life  in  Cavnda. 

■  State  Normal  School,  Athens,  Georgia.   Bulletin,  Our  Country  Life 

ProhUms. 


u 


24 


AGRICULTLTl-VL  EDUCATION 


the  man  is  only  half  trained  whrn  this  is  done.  lie  must  be 
trained,  as  a  man,  to  devote  his  energies  towards  the  de- 
velopment of  a  new  siK-ial  order  in  the  open  country. 

Lack  of  educational  opportunities  is  also  a  contributing 
factor.  The  art  of  aj,'riculture  will  never  rise  higher  than 
the  intellectual  status  of  the  men  who  are  engaged  in  it,  and 
thus  the  education  of  the  farmer  becomes  of  great  impor- 
tance. The  Countrj'  Life  Commission,  reporting  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States  in  1909,  states  that  "all 
difficulties  resolve  themselves  in  the  end  into  a  question  of 
education." ' 

In  the  United  States  there  are  five  and  a  half  million 
Illiterates,  and  millions  more  little  above  the  line  cf  total 
illiteracy.  Of  the  5,516,163  children  over  ten  years  of  age 
unable  to  read  and  write,  l,7<)8,13i^  are  in  urban  communi- 
ties, and  3,718,031  arc  in  rural  districts.  That  is  to  say,  5.1 
per  cent  of  the  urban  population  is  illiterate,  but  practi- 
cally twice  this  proportion^  10.1  per  cent,  of  the  rural  popu- 
lation is  illiterate.- 

The  above  figures  show  the  condition  to  .some  extent, 
but  they  do  not  tell  the  whole  story.  This  lack  of  opportu- 
nity to  get  anything  beyond  the  mo.st  clementarj'  training, 
drives  all  those  who  wish  to  obtain  any  higher  education  to 
the  cities  and  towns.  The  Kentucky  State  Supervisor  of 
Rural  Schools  says  that  out  «)f  more  than  eleven  hundred 
cases  of  removal  to  the  city  that  he  personally  investigated, 
over  one  thousand  were  brought  about  by  a  desire  for 
school  or  church  or  social  advantages.^ 

It  is  not  only  the  educational  advantages,  obtainable  in 
school,  that  are  lacking,  but  also  other  intellectual  pursuits. 
For  example,  there  are  one  and  a  half  millions  of  people  in 
New  York  State  without  access  to  books,  and  a  million  in 

»   Sonatp  Document  70.5.   Sixtieth  Conpress. 

«  lUitcmry  in  the  I'nited  States.  United  States  Bureau  of  F'ducation. 
Bulletin  iO.    19Li. 

'  Fducation  in  the  South.  L'nited  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin 
30.  11)13. 


SOME  CONDITIONS  OF  RURAL   LIFE 


25 


each  of  the  states  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  active  agencies  for  hbrary  extension 
liiive  been  in  operation  for  many  years.  The  repHes  re- 
ceived by  the  Delaware  State  Library  Commission  prove 
that  a  great  majority  of  rural  families  in  that  state  own 
but  few  books,  —  and  these  not  standard  works  in  the  es- 
timation of  librarians.  Many  families  own  no  books,  except 
the  Hible,  and  twenty  i^er  cent  of  them  take  no  periodical, 
not  even  a  newspaper. '  Recognizing  the  influence  of  good 
books,  the  majority  of  the  states  are  now  engaged  in  rural 
library  extension  work. 

Lack  of  opportunities  for  amusement  and  recreation.  — 
This  also  plays  a  part  in  the  movement  under  considera- 
tion, particularly  in  the  case  of  the  youth.  Generally  it 
may  lie  said  that  the  country  does  not  provide  amusements 
of  any  kind,  good  or  bad.  The  city  supplies  both.  Many  a 
boy  has  left  the  farm,  not  because  of  the  hard  work,  but 
because  he  exp)erienced  nothing  but  hard  work.  Any  one 
wlio  has  visited  a  sn:  11  town  in  the  midst  of  a  rural  region, 
in  Canada  or  in  the  United  States,  on  Saturday  afternoon 
or  any  popular  holiday,  and  witnessed  the  crowds  of  young 
men  and  women  from  the  country  entering  the  moving- 
l)i(ture  shows,  can  appreciate  the  craving  for  amusement 
and  excitement  which  has  taken  possession  of  their  minds 
owing  to  the  lack  of  any  healthy  excitement  in  their  daily 
routine. 

We  need  a  broader  development  of  rural  recreation, 
iiut  it  should  be  evolved  out  of  rural  conditions  and  not 
transferred  without  modification  from  the  city.  There  is 
apparently  no  organization  in  the  country  which  feels 
tailed  upon  to  provided  facilities  for  healthy  amusement 
and  recreation. 

The  popular  estimation  of  the  farmer.  —  The  estimation 
in  which  the  farmer  is  held  by  the  community  at  large,  is 

'  Commissioner  of  Education.   Rejxni,  I9\i.   United  States  Bureau  of 

F.(luc;ition. 


«6 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


probably  responsible  for  the  refusal  of  a  number  of  boys 
and  girls  to  take  up  life  on  the  farm.  The  farmer  is  often 
held  in  good-natured  contempt.  The  stage  farmer  is  usu- 
ally one  of  the  least  desirable  characters.  As  portrayed  in 
ordmary  literature,  the  farmer  is  generally  a  poor  specimen 
of  humanity,  and  farming  is  not  looked  upon  as  an  avenue 
to  popular  distinction. 

While  the  people  of  the  towns  and  cities  are  not  wholly 
blameless  for  this  conception,  the  rural  [people  themselves 
must  take  the  greater  share  of  the  blame.  The  majority  of 
farmers  do  not  take  sufficient  pride  in  their  occupation  or 
their  appearance.  They  look  upon  country  life  as  a  .ondi- 
tion  from  which  they  must  escape  at  the  earliest  opportu- 
nity. 

The  influence  of  home  opinion,  also,  is  very  great.  The 
estimates  of  the  farm  fireside  have  militated  against  the 
quality  of  country  life.  Many  a  farmer  and  his  wife  points 
with  pride  to  one  son  who  has  met  with  success  in  trade, 
commerce,  or  professional  life,  and  forget  to  extol  the  work 
of  another  son,  who  by  staying  on  the  farm  has  made  its 
continuance  possible.  The  young  man  who  has  stayed  at 
home  may  have  conquered  conditions  more  stubborn  and 
complex  than  any  that  have  been  met  with  in  the  city,  and 
may  have  made  a  much  greater  contribution  to  the  welfare 
of  the  community;  but  owing  to  the  prevailing  false  esti- 
mate, he  has  not  received  equal  recognition. 

It  is  earnestly  to  be  desired  that  the  American  farmer 
should  take  a  greater  pride  in  his  personal  appearance, 
exalt  )  Js  occupation  on  every  occasion,  and  seek  by  legiti- 
mate means  to  acquire  a  greater  influence  in  the  councils 
of  the  nation  than  he  now  possesses. 

The  boy  on  the  farm  as  an  unpaid  hand.  —  The  treatment 
the  boy  on  the  farm  receives,  in  regard  to  financial  matters, 
also  has  its  influence.  Many  a  boy  and  girl  feels  humiliated 
at  having  to  ask  parents  for  every  cent  they  require.  As 
soon  as  they  are  old  enough  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the 


SOME   CONDITIONS  OF  RT  RAL  LIFE 


27 


affairs  of  the  farm,  they  should  be  given  a  share  in  the  in- 
come. The  farmer  often  thinks  that  because  in  his  esti- 
mates he  makes  no  allowance  for  the  labor  of  himself  and 
his  wife,  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  so  in  the  case  of  his  chil- 
dren. The  children  look  upon  the  matter  in  a  different 
light.  Many  of  their  companions  go  to  the  cities,  and  not 
only  bring  back  on  their  visits  accounts  of  the  city's  many 
attractions,  but  they  also  speak  of  the  money  they  can  earn 
and  what  they  are  able  to  do  with  it. 

The  farm  boy  and  girl  should  be  allowed  to  begin  earning 
at  least  two  years  before  they  are  to  leave  school.  There 
are  always,  of  course,  a  number  of  miscellaneous  chores  to 
be  done,  but  the  children  should  not  be  restricted  to  these. 
They  should  be  allowed  to  undertake  something  from  which 
they  Cfii  see  a  prospect  of  financial  gain,  such  as  rearing  a 
calf  or  a  pig,  cultivating  an  acre,  making  butter  or  growing 
fruit,  and  be  permitted  to  keep  the  profit  arising  from  the 
venture.  Cases  have  been  known  in  which  a  boy  has  raised 
n  calf  which  sold  at  a  good  profit,  and  the  only  recompense 
received  was  the  gift  of  another  calf  on  which  he  was  ex- 
pected to  repeat  the  process. 

Why  should  not  the  boy  who  remains  on  the  farm,  and 
tlie  girl  who  stays  in  the  farm  home,  be  given  a  definite 
wage  for  the  work  they  do?  The  amount  need  not  be  large, 
but  it  would  lessen  the  difference  between  them  and  their 
city  friends.  "Such  a  practice  started  in  the  neighbour- 
In  )n(l  would  go  far  towards  breaking  up  the  old  habit,  not 
ytt  extinct,  of  working  the  boy  as  an  unpaid  'hand'  and 
giving  him  no  interest  in  the  proceeds,  a  custom  that  has 
driven  untold  thousands  off  the  land."  '  The  boy  must  be 
shown  that  agriculture,  properly  conducted,  is  economi- 
cally profitable,  or  he  will  not  be  inclined  to  stay  on  the 
farm.  Instead  of  asking  why  the  boy  leaves  the  farm,  we 
vshuultl  rather  ask  why  he  should  stay  on  the  farm.  What 
has  it  to  offer  him? 

»  State  of  Illinois.  fUjiort  of  Educational  Commission,  1911,  p.  82. 


i 


e 


i: 


88  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 

The  decay  of  village  industries.  —  If  we  compare  the 
typical  village  of  thirty  years  ago  with  that  of  to-day,  we 
shall  find  that  the  carpenter,  the  wheelwright,  the  wagon- 
maker,  the  blacksmith,  and  many  other  prominent  crafts- 
men have  disappeared.  In  the  old  days  the  farm  home  wjis 
self-contained,  and  produced  within  its  own  limits  nearly 
everj-thing  recpiired  for  a  hap{)y  and  contented  life.  Now, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  these  and  other  industries,  work- 
men have  to  be  sent  for  in  the  town;  and  farm  machinery, 
appliances,  homes,  and  buildings,  are  in  many  cases  in  a 
dilapidated  condition  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
the  necessary  workmen  and  the  inability  of  the  farmer  to 
make  small  repairs  when  they  are  needed.  The  village 
store,  which  in  the  old  days  was  almost  a  center  of  social 
life,  has  felt  the  effects  of  the  change.  The  craftsman  and 
the  storekeeper  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the  com- 
munity, and  with  their  disappearance  the  population  has 
not  only  decreased  in  numbers  but  has  lost  in  quality  and 
stability  also. 

The  increase  of  tenancy  throughout  the  country.  — The  in- 
crease of  tenancy  is  having  a  depressing  influence  on  the 
character  of  the  country  population.  This  increase  does 
not,  i)erhaps,  affect  the  numbers  living  in  the  country,  but 
it  docs  affect  in  a  material  way  their  stability  and  their 
character.  The  character  and  prestige  of  the  average  ten- 
ant is  anything  but  satisfactory.  He  seldom  has  interest, 
except  of  the  lowest  kind,  in  church,  schools,  or  politics,  in 
any  public  movement  for  the  general  welfare,  in  good  roads, 
or  in  improved  agriculture.  With  a  shifting  tenant  class  it 
is  impossible  to  interest  the  farmer  in  the  various  institu- 
tions and  organizations  which  are  essential  to  rural  eco- 
nomic development.  If,  as  maintained  by  some,  the  rural 
life  problem  may  be  solved  by  a  system  of  rural  credit,  the 
increase  of  tenancy  is  a  decided  hindrance,  as  a  shifting 
tenancy  cannot  supply  the  security  demanded  by  credit 
associations. 


SOME  CONDITIONS  OF  RUR.VL  Lira 


29 


Of  course,  in  a  country  as  large  as  the  United  States,  the 
amount  and  effect  of  tonar^y  will  vary  considerably.  In 
Alabama  and  South  Carolina  more  than  three  farms  out  of 
cvtrj-  five,  and  in  Mississippi  and  Georgia  nearly  two  farms 
out  of  every  three,  are  worked  under  tenancy,'  while 
Connecticut,  Arizona.  Montana,  Wyoming,  Massachu- 
setts, Utah,  New  Hampshire,  New  Mexico,  and  Maine  all 
have  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  their  farms  occupied  by 
tenants.' 

The  economic  salvation  of  a  country  largely  depends 
upon  a  numl)er  of  small  farmers  who  own  the  land  they 
cultivate  and  cultivate  the  land  they  own.  The  economic 
stal)ility  of  France  has  been  saved  many  times  by  its  small 
laiKJownors.  A  lialf-dozcn  pn)s;)erous  countries  of  the  worlil 
illustrate  the  far-reaching  results  of  small  landholdings, 
owned  and  tilled  by  their  occupants.  The  total  nunil)er  of 
Danish  rural  properties  is  -ri\083.  About  70,000  of  these 
are  holdings  of  less  than  one  and  a  third  acres  each.  The 
average  size  of  all  the  farms  is  3.5  acres.^  Eighty-nine  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  own  their  farms,  and  only  eleven  p<T 
cent  are  tenants  and  day  laborers.  Their  cities  know  little 
of  tenement  houses  and  slum  problems.  The  Dane  does  not 
crowd  into  congested  cities  because  it  is  made  easy  for  him 
to  purchase  a  farm.  If  he  has  one  tenth  of  the  purchase 
price,  he  can  borrow  the  remainder  from  a  state  bank.  The 
prr  capita  wealth  of  the  country  is  the  greatest  in  Europe, 
and  the  distribution  of  its  wealth  is  almost  ideal. 

Lack  nf  adequate  facilities  for  transportation.  —  Lack  of 
good  roads  has  also  played  its  part  in  the  depletion  of  the 
rural  population.  The  difference  between  good  and  bad 
roads  is  often  equivalent  to  the  difference  between  profit 
and  loss.   Good  roads  have  a  social  and  refining  influence 

'  Eihtcnfinn  in  the  South.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin 
150.   19l;5. 

-  I  nivrrsity  of  Virginia.   Rural  Life  ronferonoe.    August,  1914. 

'  lldval  Commission  on  Industrial  Training.  Report,  vol.  1,  part  3. 
Ottawa,  ("anasia. 


80 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


upon  the  community ;  but  even  looking  at  the  question  from 
the  financial  side  alone,  they  are  found  to  pay  good  dividends 
each  year. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  the  United  States  more  than  $100,- 
000,000  is  .spent  annually  on  the  roads;  and  if  to  this  be 
added  the  loss  caused  by  bad  roads,  it  will  reach  a  sum 
treble  that  amount.  It  actually  costs  the  farmer  more  to 
haul  a  bushel  of  wheat  from  his  farm  to  the  railroad  than 
it  costs  to  ship  it  from  New  York  to  Liverpool.*  When  it  is 
considenvi  that  the  prosperity  of  the  faimer  depends  not 
on  the  a  lount  of  produce  he  can  raise,  but  on  that  which 
he  can  market  successfully,  the  effect  of  good  roads  on  a 
farming  community  will  be  readily  seen. 

The  average  haul  from  farm  to  shipping  point  in  the 
United  States  is  about  9.4  miles.  The  average  cost  of  haul- 
ing on  the  country  roads  is  about  23  cents  a  ton  a  mile.  The 
corresponding  cost  in  France  and  England  is  about  10  cents, 
and  in  many  cases  it  is  as  low  as  7  cents.  If  the  rate  on  this 
continent  could  be  cut  in  half,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  an 
immense  saving  would  be  effected.  If  all  the  vehicles  used 
could,  by  improved  roads,  be  made  to  last  one  year  longer, 
the  additional  sum  saved  would  run  into  millions  of  dollars. 

Improved  roads  increase  the  value  of  property.  A  recent 
investigation  in  the  State  of  Ohio  shows  that  there  are  six- 
teen counties  in  which  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  roads 
are  improved,  while  there  are  forty-five  agricultural  coun- 
ties in  which  more  than  ten  [ter  cent  are  improved.  The 
average  price  of  the  farm  lands  in  the  sixteen  counties  is 
$18.50  per  acre,  while  the  average  price  of  land  in  the  forty- 
five  counties  is  $65,79  per  acre,  showing  an  increase  of 
$17. '•JO,  or  thirty-five  per  cent.  Considering  that  there  are 
873  millions  of  acres  of  farm  lands  in  the  United  States,  the 
possibilities  from  road  improvement  are  rather  startling. 
If  an  increase  of  only  $5  per  acre  were  brought  about,  the 
enhancement  of  farm  lands  alone  would  be  $4,365,000,000. 

'-  tuivufsltj'  of  Virgima.  Rural  Life  <.'<:nfcn-nw,  191i.   Rfjxirt,  p.  385. 


SOME  CONDITIONS  OF   RURAL   LIFE 


31 


All  the  evidence  available  tends  to  prove  tliat  the 
rountry-wide  improvement  of  toads  would  result  in  better 
fanning,  greater  profits,  a  richer  social  life,  and  improved 
schools. 


fll 


A'i 


t 


n 


CHAPTER  III 


TUE  RURAL  ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

A  LiTTi.K  more  than  half  a  century  apo  tho  first  agricul- 
tural collt^'c  was  cstahlished  in  Aincricu.  There  is  now  a 
well-e(juii)i)e(l  college  in  every  state  of  the  Union  and  in 
every  province  of  th«  Dominion,  Since  their  foundation, 
the  colleges  have  dev  ,ted  their  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  aj^riculturc  throuf^h  educational  effort.  They  have 
accoiiiplislied  nnich.  Collegiate  education  in  agriculture, 
and,  in  sonic  sections,  secondary  agricultural  education 
also,  is  fairly  well  cstalilislied.  The  problem  of  rural  educa- 
tion needs  now  to  he  approached  from  the  other  end,  that 
is,  through  (he  elementary  rural  school. 

It  may  he  <'ontended  that  the  rural  sch(X)ls  are  not  now 
doing  successfully  the  work  for  which  they  were  established, 
and  that  to  impose  another  subject  of  study  would  make 
them  still  less  efficient;  but  agricultural  education,  in  the 
lower  grades  at  any  rate,  does  not  mean  the  introduction  of 
another  subject. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  efficient  rural  schools 
are  necessary  to  the  welfare  not  only  (jf  the  rural  districts 
but  also  of  the  entire  nation.  A  hurried  survey,  therefore, 
of  the  present  condition  of  these  schools  will  not  l>e  out  of 
place.  We  have  been  so  blinded  by  the  growth  of  educa- 
tional expenditure  in  the  cities  that  to  a  very  large  extent 
we  have  lost  sight  of  the  condition  and  purpose  of  the  rural 
schools. 

From  the  standpoint  of  numbers  of  pupils  alone,  the 
rural  schools  deserve  more  attention  than  they  have  yet 
received.  The  following  illustration  shows  the  relative 
pnMM>r!i(>ns  of  tb.c  url>an  and  tlic  rural  population  in  the 


TIIE   RURAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


33 


T  '..ted  States  and  in  Crnada,  according  to  the  censuses  of 
till'  lust  three  decade.'*.  It  will  thus  readily  be  seen  that 
the  rural  population  is  still  in  the  majority,  even  when  the 
rapid  increase  in  the  urban  population  is  taken  into  ac- 


r-4/M/VJ 


IS9I 


t//T2ZZD  JTAT£J 


CO.MrAKI.SON  OF   RURAI.  AND   CKUAN    POPL'LATIO.V 

(■(Hint.  We  are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  rural  child 
.suiFiTs  from  lack  of  educational  opportunities,  when  we 
cdtiipare  the  size  of  the  schools,  the  character  of  the 
liiiildings,  the  quality  of  the  teaching  staff,  and  the  man- 
UL-cnient  of  the  schools  in  urban  and  in  rural  districts. 


THE    PROBLEM    OF   EN'ROLL.\IENT 

In  the  United  States.^  —  In  order  that  the  extent  and  the 
frra\  ity  of  this  question  may  l)e  understood,  let  us  take  a 
>.'(ruTal  .survey  of  the  conditions.  The  following  figures  are 
till'  latest  obtainable,  and  are  in  most  cases  for  the  year 
1!»1().  .\lthough  these  figures  may  have  changed  somewhat 

'  Thf  Sltiliis  of  Rural  Education  in  the  United  Staiet,  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation.  Bulletins.   1911 


r 


34  AGRirrLTniAL  EDICATION 

since  that  date,  the  j,'eneral  Hitualion  remains  the  same.  In 
thirty-two  jstutes  the  total  puniU-r  of  one-teacher,  which 
jjenerally  means  (mc-r«iom.  schools  is  147,447.  This  is  a|>- 
proximately  HO  |)cr  cent  of  the  total  nunil)er  of  18.'J,Hi4 
public  schools  in  those  states.  These  thirty-two  states  arc 
well  .listrihuled  among  the  states  in  the  Union,  so  that  the 
ratio  of  one-teacher  sch(M)ls  to  total  sch(M)ls  will  prohahly 
hohl  true  for  the  entire  country.  If  so.  there  is  a  total  of 
api)n»ximately  4^,380  one-teacher  .schools  in  the  I'nited 
States. 

Statistics  showing,'  the  total  enrollment  are  availat)le  for 
twenty-one  states.  Thes«'  ^;ive  an  enrollment  of  3,6-2 1.278 
pupils  in  114,7.')3  one-ieacher  .scIuh)1s,  or  an  average  of  31.5 
to  each  .school.  At  the  .same  rate,  the  enrollment  in  the 
147,447  one-teacher  schwjls  re[M)rted  in  the  thirty-two 
states  would  be  4,637,650,  and  in  the  214.380  one-teacher 
schools  of  the  entire  country,  6,689,970  pupils.  This  is 
37.6  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  all  public  .schools,  and 
60.2  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  all  rural  .schools.  The 
average  number  of  pupils  in  each  school  may  be  determined 
from  the  reports  of  twenty-one  states,  but  only  in  a  few  of 
these  can  it  be  determined  when  the  avcnige  is  fifteen  or 
less.  In  fifteen  of  these  states,  47.6  i)er  cent  of  the  one- 
teacher  schools  have  an  enrollment  of  fifteen  or  fewer;  and 
it  must  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  enrollment 
does  not  mean  attendance. 

Attendance  in  individual  states:  —  Kverj'  county  in  every 
state  seems  to  have  a  number  of  small  and  jxHirly  attended 
schools.  In  1911,  Kansas  had  1640  schools  with  an  attend- 
ance of  ten  or  less;  New  Hampshire  had  117  schools  with  an 
attendance  of  6  pupils  or  fewer,  and  383  schools  with  14  or 
fewer.  Maine,  with  a  total  of  4398  one-room  scIkm.Is,  had 
206  with  an  average  attendance  of  less  than  8.  Minnesota 
had  385.  Michigan  1500.  and  Nebraska  14(M)  .schools  with  an 
attendance  of  10  and  less.  In  Kansas,  which  perhaps  may 
!  pjy,.  pjstrift  Normal  School.  Kirksville,  Missouri.   Bulletin.   1911. 


THE    RIRAL   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 


S5 


be  tak«>n  as  typical  of  the  other  states,  Ifie  fifjures  when 
rDMsidfred  in  «letail  are  rather  starthrig.  Of  the  H()(».3  dis- 
trict M  luKils.  there  are  7H  with  an  enrollment  of  :>  <,r  hvss, 
m  with  an  enrollnK-nt  of  l)ot\ve«-n  .>  and  10.  lOH)  U-twefn 
10  and  Lj,  and  I'MVt  between  l.">  and  'iO,  a  total  of  •iOl? 
schools  with  un  enrollment  of  40  or  less —  more  than  one 
lliirfl  of  the  total  number  of  districts.  In  the  matter  of 
avrra^^c  daily  attendame,  there  arc  yMG  scho<)ls  with  a 
daily  avera>?e  of  "sJO  or  le.s.s,  or  Ihi  pt-r  cent  of  tljc  whole. 
In  addition  to  this,  there  ar<'  170  districts  not  maintain- 
ing; schools,  presumably  because  they  And  it  chea|H'r  to 
send  their  cluldren  to  other  districts. 

In  li»14,  in  the  State  of  North  Dakota  126  schools  had 
an  average  of  4  |)uj)ils  or  less,  100  had  only  .'5,  ill  had  0,  484 
had  7,  .SO.'J  had  H.  410  had  ».  and  3G7  had  10,  making  40  |)er 
cent  of  the  scIum)Is  with  an  average  of  10  pupils  or  less.' 

According  to  Dr.  Monahan,  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Kducation,  the  rural  schools  enroll  more  than  half  of  all 
the  |)npils  in  the  country,  and  of  these  60  per  cent,  or 
(!,(»S!),000,  are  to  Ik>  found  in  the  single-room  schools. 

Tlir  sititalion  in  Canaila:  Manitoba.  —  A  sjMH-ial  report 
of  the  Department  of  Education  shows  that  in  1910  there 
were  4  .schools  with  an  average  attendance  for  the  year  of 
less  than  2,  7  with  an  average  attendance  of  less  than  fi, 
14  with  an  average  of  less  than  4,  40  with  less  than  5, 
80  with  less  than  6.  5i  with  less  than  7,  411  with  less  than 
10,  and  400  with  less  than  14.^ 

Ontario.^  —  In  the  Province  of  Ontario,  the  richest  and 
most  thickly  populated  province  in  the  Dominion,  in  l!)!.*? 
(here  were  .5080  one-teacher  scIuk)1s.  Of  this  numlx^r  there 
were  ;UoO  with  an  average  attendance  of  40  or  less,  partly 
made  up  as  follows:  3  with  an  average  attendance  of  1,  14 


'  University  of  North  Dakota.   Bullptin  8.  Octolier,  1912. 

'  Maciloujrall,  .John.    Rurnl  Life  in  Canada. 

'  I'ublir  and  Separate  Schools  and  Teachers  in  Ontario.  Departnjt-nt  of 
KJucation.  Torouto. 


36 


AGIIICULTUU-VL  EDUCATION 


with  2,  2S  with  .'J,  52  witli  4,  81  with  r>,  10.5  with  G,  98  with 
7,  IJU  with  8,  179  with  9,  and  2();3  with  10,  thus  giving  895 
rural  sciinols  with  an  average  attendance  of  10  or  less. 

Enough  has  In-en  said  to  show  that  the  very  small  school 
is  common  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Noith  American 
continent. 


THE    CIIAR.\CTER,    TENTRB,    AND    REMUNERATION    OF 
TKiCHERS 

The  ncx  of  teachers.  —  The  vast  majority  of  the  teachers 
employed  in  rural  schools  are  girls,  .lust  as  the  rural  popu- 
lation is  declining  in  numbers,  .so  is  the  proportion  of  male 
teachers  declining.  In  a  single  generatit)n  this  proportion 
has  diminished  50  per  cent.  In  the  North  Atlantic  states, 
8G  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  are  women,  while  in  the  West- 
ern states  over  80  per  cent  are  now  women,  compared  with 
55  percent  in  1870.  The  statistics  are  incomi)lete,  but  it 
is  apparent  that  the  proportion  of  women  teachers  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  is  far  in  excels  of  that  anywhere 
else  in  the  world.  In  Germany,  15  |)er  cent  of  the  teachers 
are  women,  in  Switzerland  ;5(>  i)er  cent,  in  France  47  per 
cent,  in  Italy  G4  per  cent.  In  the  same  year  the  proportion 
in  the  United  States  was  7G.4  per  cent.' 

The  preparation  of  teacherit.  —  The  fact  is  that  teaching 
in  the  rural  schools  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  profession.  The 
salaries  are  so  low  that  they  are  not  attractive  to  thost  who 
have  definitely  prepared  themselves  for  the  profession  of 
teaching.  As  a  result,  nuist  of  the  teachers  found  in  these 
schools  are  beginners  or  those  who  have  not  been  suffi- 
ciently successful  to  l)e  called  to  positions  oifering  higher 
salary.  Mt)st  of  the  men  who  are  teaching  in  the  country 
are  doing  so  with  the  object  of  earning  money  to  go  to 
college  or  to  enter  some  other  occupation,  while  the  girls 
are  there  until  the.  are  offered  a  position  in  a  city  .school 
or  receive  an  offer  of  marriage. 

•  Foaht,  Hanild  Wuldskiu.    ZVjf  American  Rural  Srhuol 


THE   RFILVL   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


"The  total  number  of  f^raduates  in  the  normal  schools, 
1^<,7'28,  was  iarj^e  enoii^'li  to  supply  less  than  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  demand  for  new  teachers  in  the  elementary 
.sclinols  of  the  country.  If  all  these  jjraduates  had  hegun 
teaching  in  the  fall  after  their  graduation,  there  would  have 
heen  (50,000  vacancies,  or  more,  to  be  filled  by  young  teach- 
ers who  had  not  had  the  educational  and  professional  train- 
ing given  by  graduation  from  a  normal  school.  This  lack  of 
preparation  of  teachers  is  one  of  the  greatest  evils  of  our 
school  system.  In  no  other  country  that  pretends  to  pro- 
vide an  opportunity  for  universal  education  is  the  condi- 
tion in  this  respect  so  bad  as  in  the  United  States.  This 
condition  must  be  removed  or  the  schools  will  continue  to 
be  much  less  efficient  than  they  should  be."  ' 

When  it  is  seen  that  the  towns  and  cities  have  the  first 
call  on  these  normal-trained  teachers,  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  few  of  ther  ire  likely  to  take  positions  in  country 
schools.  The  Sta  t.  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
for  Illinois  reports  that  in  th;i'  State,  10,000,  or  more  than 
lialf,  of  the  teachers  have  had  no  education  beyond  a  com- 
mon-school course.  They  have  no  normal-sch(M)l  (jualifica- 
tions  and  no  high-school  training.  Beyond  a  little  greater 
maturity,  they  have  no  advantage  over  the  children  they 
teach.  In  another  state  that  ranks  high  in  the  educational 
world,  out  of  8000  rural  school  teachers  in  1910,  -ItOO  were 
found  to  have  had  no  education  l>eyond  the  eighth  grade. 
Tiiis  condition  exists  in  varying  degrees  in  every  state  in 
the  Union. 

If  this  condition  existed  for  one  year  only,  the  effect 
would  be  bad  enough;  but  the  system  perjK'tuates  i*^. 
Teachers  in  the  rural  sc1kk)1s  change  so  frecpiently  t'  t 
tlu'v  do  not  become  efficient,  and  they  never  stay  l-'iig 
enough  in  one  place  either  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
conditions  of  the  community  or  to  deveh)p  an  interest  in 

'  ('(immissioner  of  Education.   Report,  191i.  tailed  Slates  Bureau  of 

Kiliu.it  loll. 


r 
P    '1 


i-n 


S8  AGRICI'LTIRAL  EDUCATION 

tlio  school.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  rural  school  chil- 
dren face  a  new  teacher  every  fall.  The  fanners  do  not  real- 
ize that  tlie  teacher  in  her  second  year  is  worth  twenty-five 
to  fifty  per  cent  more  to  them  and  their  schools  than  she 
was  in  her  first  year.  The  oidy  place  where  the  untrained 
teacher  —  with  no  training  lu'yond  that  of  the  eighth  grade 
—  may  begin  is  in  the  country  schot)l.  As  soon  as  she  has 
gained  some  experience  .she  finds  a  better  position,  and  the 
country  .school  is  left  to  repeat  the  process  every  year. 

During  the  last  ten  years  great  attention  has  been  given 
to  this  (luestion  of  teacher  training,  and  one  of  the  chief 
arguments  used  has  been  the  needs  of  the  rural  school. 
There  is  now  a  fairly  successful  system  of  normal  schools 
in  operation,  btit  their  establishment  has  not  resulted  in 
any  appreciable  increa.se  in  the  number  of  normal-trained 
teachers  in  the  rural  schools. 

Tlie  mere  fact  that  normal  schools  are  established  does 
not  improve  the  rural  .schools.  It  is  of  no  use  training 
teachers  for  rural  schools  unless  the  rural  schools  are  pre- 
pared for  the  teachers  so  trained;  and  in  this  direction 
little  j)rogress  has  been  made.  The  lamentable  fact  is  that 
there  is  no  demand  for  the  well-trained  teacher  in  the  coun- 
try. Such  a  demand  must  be  created  before  much  improve- 
ment can  take  place.  The  average  farmer  looks  ujwn  the 
teacher  as  an  official  forced  upon  him  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and,  generally  speaking,  attaches  no  importance  to 
the  office. 

The  remuneration  of  teachern.  —  Among  the  many  cir- 
cumstances which  influence  the  teacher  in  the  choice  of  a 
.school  is  the  questi.)n  of  .salary,  although  probably  this  does 
not  play  so  large  a  part  as  is  generally  supposed.  If  condi- 
tions in  tiie  rural  districts  were  made  more  attractive  ed- 
ucationally and  socially,  more  teachers  would  choose  the 
country  for  the  sake  of  the  life  they  could  enjoy  and  the 
ser\ice  they  could  render. 

No  comprehensive  study  of  salaries  has  been  made  since 


TIIE   RUR-VL   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


39 


the  report  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  190.5; 
hut  Professor  Foght,  in  «  more  recent  study,  shows  that 
the  average  sahiry  paid  to  rural  school  teachers  is  $-290.93 
per  annum.  A  still  more  recent  study  made  by  Coffraan 
shows  that  the  average  salary  paid  to  men  in  rural  schools 
was  $390;  in  town  schools,  $013;  and  in  city  schools,  $919. 
I'lit'  average  salary  for  women  in  the  rural  schools  was 
.S;5()(i;  in  town  schools,  $49-2;  and  in  city  schools,  $.J91. 

In  the  Province  of  Ontario  the  average  salary  for  male 
teachers  in  the  urban  schools  is  $1153,  while  in  the  rural 
s<  h(M)ls  it  is  $536. 

"So  long  as  we  pay  the  chauffeur,  the  janitor,  the  sales- 
woman and  office  girl,  the  mill  hand  and  the  miner,  the 
policeman  and  the  hotel  clerk  more  salary  than  we  paj'  the 
teacher,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to  continue  asking.  What 
must  we  do  to  l)e  saved?  So  long  as  we  continue  to  pay  the 
harl)er  and  the  hair  dresser  more  to  shape  np  the  outside  of 
our  heads,  than  we  do  the  teacher  to  mould  the  inside,  so 
lung  will  the  outside  work  be  better  done  than  the  inside."' 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  MATERIAL   EQUIPMENT 

Another  defect  that  hampers  the  progress  of  the  rural 
school  is  the  lack  of  material  equipment,  including  build- 
ings and  grounds.  The  evolution  of  the  schoolhouse,  from 
tlie  "dug-out,"  sod,  adobe,  or  log  building,  to  the  palatial 
city  school  of  to-day,  is  an  interesting  study;  but  the  coun- 
try school,  generally  sjjeaking,  has  not  evolved.  It  is  in  a 
.state  of  arrested  development  or  suspended  animation.  In 
(iiscussing  this  question  we  must  remember  that  the  United 
States  is  a  country  of  great  extent  and  differing  conditions, 
and  that  its  schools,  especially  its  rural  schools,  differ  ma- 
terially in  quality  and  usefulness.  For  this  reason  it  is 
dangerous  to  generalize.  It  may  l)e  said  on  the  authority 
<'f  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  howevi^r,  that 
only  in  very  few  cases  are  the  buildings  cfjual  to  the  average 
'  National  Education  Association.  Proceeding*.  lOli,  p.  480. 


40 


AGRICI'LTITIAL  EDITATION 


homos  of  the  section.  A  rocent  survey  of  llic  conditions  in 
northern  Missouri  shows  that  in  tliirty  miles  of  travel  alonj^ 
country  roads,  not  one  unpuinted  barn  or  farmhouse  was 
observed,  but  every  sch(K)lhousc  was  out  of  repair.  It  is 
not  at  all  unccmmon  to  find  a  pi{,'sty  or  a  cowshed  belter 
built  and  equipped  for  its  purpose  than  is  the  rural  school- 
house. 

The  Board  of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  America  has  made  detailed  surveys  in  selected  counties 
in  each  of  seven  states.  Their  rejxjrt  of  the  school  build- 
ings in  the  State  of  Illinois  reads  as  follows:  "They  are  for 
the  most  part  old  and  out  of  date  —  one  r(M)m,  low  ceilings, 
dingj'  and  dark.  Large  grounds  surround  these  buildings, 
but  they  are  for  the  most  part  bleak  and  bare  of  any  at- 
tractiveness or  beauty.  Where  most  of  the  population  are 
tenant  farmers  the  buildings  are  in^orly  kept,  and  there  is 
often  strong  opjwsition  from  the  landlords  to  any  iinprove- 
niont.  The  surroundinij;s  and  inadetiuacy  of  the  rural 
schools  have  much  to  do  with  driving  the  young  people  to 
the  towns  and  cities."  The  reports  on  the  surveys  in 
the  other  states  differ  very  little  from  the  statement  in  the 
above  quotation. 

The  Southern  Educational  Board  recently  conducted  a 
survey  of  conditions  iu  twenty-eight  counties  in  eight  South- 
ern states.  These  counties  contain  1579  schools  for  white 
children,  1107  of  v/hich  have  one  teacher  and  289  two 
teachers;  938  were  reported  to  be  old  buildings,  683  were 
unpainied,  12^  were  unceiled,  485  were  not  weather-tight, 
455  had  home-made  desks,  27  had  no  desks  and  were 
etjuipped  with  benches  only.' 

Apart  from  the  condition  of  the  building  itself,  the  school- 
house  is  generally  deficient  in  many  other  essential  require- 
ments. Very  few  are  properly  lighted,  either  as  to  quantity 
or  distribution  of  light.    Only  about  five  per  cent  of  the 


'  Thf  N/(i/u.i  nf  Rural  Kducation  in  the  United  Utatei. 
caliuu.    liulletin  t>.    1913. 


Bureau  of  £du- 


m 


■"M 


Ir.illt    tliil  -!•>•■   \  ir\v 


m 


r  ii 


ICru    M 


I-  riMit  \  i>\\ 


i:i>iiM  vrrt>  Miii(i.i.~  1)1     \n-i;i  IV  111   i:i  ic  \i.  ~(  lie  "  ■!    i:iiii>im 


THE   RIILVL   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 


41 


s<>1iooI.s  visited  hy  representatives  of  the  Roard  of  Iloriie 
Missions  were  found  to  he  i)roperIy  ventilated,  and  even  a 
siiialler  proportion  were  j)roperly  lieated.  In  tlie  Missouri 
.survey  mentioned  above,  the  wat(r-suj)ply  for  seventy-five 
{)er  cent  of  the  schools  was  iiiifiltered  cistern  water  ob- 
tained from  the  roofs  of  the  buildings.  Several  sc-hools  were 
found  with  no  water-supply  whatever.  Proi)er  sanitary 
conveniences  are  lacking  in  the  schoolhouses  in  all  parts  of 
rural  United  States.  One  superintendent  reports  that  ten 
I)er  cent  of  his  .sc1uh)1s  have  no  outhouses  of  any  description. 
"The  toilet  facilities  of  the  rural  schools  are,  generally 
.sf>eaking,  not  only  a  disgrace,  but  a  menace  to  public  health 
and  decent  morals."  ' 

Fortunately  the  indications  now  point  to  marked  im- 
provement in  all  that  i)ertains  to  the  material  equipment 
of  the  rural  school.  Many  districts  are  erecting  new  build- 
ings. Several  states  have  enacted  laws  which  require  that 
the  j)lans  for  all  new  schools  .shall  \>e  approved  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education.  This  can  be  done,  however,  only  in 
those  states  in  which  the  control  of  educational  affairs  is 
vested  in  a  .state  or  county  Imard.  Where  this  control  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  single  district  board  of  trustees,  the  only  hope 
for  better  conditions  lies  in  the  education  of  public  opinion. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  has  recently  in- 
stituted an  exhibit  that  should  do  much  to  show  the  rural 
|M)pulation  the  chief  points  of  a  good  schoolhouse.  The 
bureau  has  had  constructed,  in  accordance  with  the  strict- 
est scientific  principles,  several  mmlels  of  satisfactory  and 
approved  schoolhouses.  These  are  made  of  cardboard  and 
show  all  details  of  construction  and  etjuipment.  They  are 
shipi)ed  flat  to  any  board  of  trustees  desiring  to  erect  a  new 
school.  Dr.  Dresslar,  of  the  Bureau,  asserts  that  any  car- 
penter, with  one  of  these  models  to  work  from,  will  l>e  able 
to  build  a  schoolhouse  that  will  meet  every  requirement. 

'  Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds.  United  States  Bureau  uf  EducatiotL 
Uulletin  U.    1U14. 


a 


42 


AGRICLLTIRAL  EDI  CATION 


THE  lf.n(;tii  or  session  in  rthal  districts 
The  avcrag*'  yrarly  tmii  of  scIhm.I  for  the  wlioK"  country 
is  ;.'>7  (lays,  varyiiiK  from  litlU-  more  than  100  days  in  several 
states  to  a  maximum  of  KKJ  clays  in  Rho<le  Island.   The 
rural  average  is  still  shorter,  being  less  than  100  days  in 
several  slates  and  140  days  for  the  whole  ct)untry.    These 
figures  rej)resent  the  number  of  days  the  seluM)l  is  open,  and 
not  the  miml)er  of  days  the  children  attend.   The  average 
number  of  «lays  in  which  children  of  .school  age  attended 
s<.-h»M)l  was,  in  l!)ll,  only  81.1  for  the  whole  country.  This 
varied  from  44.5  days  in  South  Carolina  to  H0.4  days  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  At  this  rale,  the  average  nun)l)er 
of  days  for  each  child  in  the  thirttn-n  years  of  school  life 
varies  from  5.j'2.r>  days  in  South  Carolina,  to  \r)G'>.'i  days 
in  the  District  of  ( "olumbia.  These  figures  reveal  the  condi- 
tions in  the  country  at  large,  and  it  is  safe  to  a.ssumc  that 
if  the  corresponding  figures  could  be  secured  relating  to 
rural  districts  only  they  would  be  even  more  alarming. 

Only  two  stales.  Coiuiecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  have 
s<-hool  terms  in  rural  districts  extending  to  nine  months. 
Eleven  others  have  terms  between  eight  and  nine  mouths. 
Florida  and  :Vrkansas  keep  their  rural  sc1hm)1s  oi)en  for  five 
months,  while  North  (\nrolina,  South  Carolina,  and  New 
Mexico  provide  their  children  with  barely  four  and  a  half 
months  of  school  each  year.'  These  figures,  hov.ever,  do 
not  tell  the  whole  story.  This  short  term  is,  in  some  cases, 
broken  into  two  or  three  fragments  for  various  farming 
operations.  There  are  counties  with  a  six-weeks  session 
before  Christinas,  two  months  or  s  of  s<'hool  in  midwinter, 
and  six  weeks  in  summer.  This  broken  school  term  is  com- 
mon throughout  the  State  of  Georgia.  There  is  no  valid 
reason  why  the  length  of  term  in  the  rural  schools  should 
not  be  equa"  'o  that  in  the  cities. 

»  Commissioner  of  Education.  Report,  VJli.  Unittti  States  Bureau  of 
Education. 


THE   RIILVL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


43 


THK   PROBLKM   OF  SUPERVISION 

Till'  lark  of  (ulff/iKitr  mtprrvitdon.  —  SujKTvision  is  an 
al)S()luto  necessity  if  the  rural  seliools  are  to  In-  made  eHi- 
<ient.  The  supervision  which  exists  to-day,  except  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, ()re>;on,  New  York  Slate,  and  a  few  favoraldy 
situated  townships  in  other  states,  is  more  of  a  name  than 
a  fa<'t.  According  to  the  Rural  School  Supervisor  of  the 
Stale  of  Alahanui,  it  would  take  ten  years  to  reach  all  the 
seliools  of  the  state  even  if  twenty-five  sc1um)1s  were  visited 
each  week.  In  Wisconsin,  each  county  superintendent 
supervises  the  work  of  LJO  teachers  and  VIM  children,  and 
covers  an  area  of  700  sipiarc  miles.  In  Illinois,  the  average 
number  of  teachers  to  each  superintendent  is  113,  with  a 
territory  of  ojO  scjuare  miles  to  l)e  covered. 

In  the  18  larger  cities  of  the  United  States  in  1910,  there 
was  one  supervisor  for  each  10  teachers  devoting  half  or 
more  than  half  of  his  time  to  actual  su|K>rvision.  Hy  an  en- 
actment of  lOl-i,  the  New  York  State  Legislature  divided 
the  57  counties  of  the  state  into  207  supervisory  districts. 
The  suiwrvisor  must  he  a  fully  qualified  man,  and  in  ad- 
dition "shall  pass  an  examination  prescribed  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education  in  the  supervision  of  the  course  of 
study  in  agriculture,  and  teaching  the  same."  '  In  one 
state  where  close  sui)ervision  was  put  into  operation  five 
years  ago,  it  has  been  found  that  the  fKTcentage  of  attend- 
ance in  all  the  schools  suj)erviscd  incTcus<>d  in  three  years 
from  an  average  of  69  per  cent  to  86  per  cent,  a  gain  of  al- 
most i'i  per  cent  in  that  short  ijeritni.^ 

On  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  a  sc1kh)1,  the  sujierintend- 
eiit  cannot  usually  concern  himself  exclusively  with  the 
teai  her  and  lur  methods.  Owing  to  the  inefficiency  of  the 
average  school  trustee  an«l  to  other  causes,  he  has  to  deal 


'   T)ic  Sintu.i  nf  Rural  Education  in  the  I'nitu!  States.   Bureau  nf  Educa- 
tion.   Hullctin  H.    l!»l;J. 

'  National  Education  Association.   Procmltngn,  1913. 


44 


AOKK  rLTIRAL  EDITATION 


with  i\  niinilMT  of  matters  arising'  from  th*-  prrjiidirr.  ig- 
ii(irari<r,  and  apathy  of  tin"  |m'o|i|c.  TIic  clrrical  work  and 
I  lie  outside  duties  of  the  siiperiiiteiulent  are  freciuently  so 
great  tlial  h*-  can  spend  only  three  or  four  months  of  the 
year  in  actually  visiting  ami  su|)ervi-.ing  the  work  of  the 
schools.  Fntin  this  has  to  he  suhtracted  the  time  taken  to 
reach  the  schools.  In  one  county  in  Illinois,  the  county 
sujxTintendent  is  eompt'lled  to  drive  l&l  miles,  in  addition 
to  railway  and  trolley  travel,  in  visiting  his  s(ho,,ls. 

Iii(iili<iuittr  tiualifivatums  Jot  a  ,„.lntmcnt  of  siijurinteiul- 
cntH.  —  No  (iualif'iation.s  are  required  for  appointment  a.s 
sui)erinlendent,  except  in  a  very  few  states.  Only  twenty- 
three  stales  re(piire  (|ualitieations,  and  even  in  these  tlie  re- 
(juirements  are  l«)w,  heing  generally  a  tirst -grade  certificate. 
Before  supervision  can  Iw  nuid"  efficient  there  n»ust  Ik?  de- 
veloped a  jirofession  of  superinteiideney,  and  to  secure  this 
there  must  he  eslahlished  training  courses,  fixity  of  ten- 
ure, and  adecjuate  salaries.  The  superintenth'ut's  position 
is  now  unstahle,  owing  to  selection  acctmling  to  political 
aniliati.)ns.  The  field  of  selection  is  not  only  narrowed  l»y 
the  fad  that  the  superintendent  must  he  a  memher  of  the 
dominant  [xditical  faction  for  the  time  heing,  hut  usually 
he  must  also  he  a  resident  of  the  county.  We  do  not  ai)ply 
this  principle  to  the  choice  of  a  lawyer  or  a  d(K'tor,  and  it  is 
difiicult  to  see  why  the  suiKTintendent  should  not  he  chosen 
entirely  upon  his  (pialifications,  quite  apart  from  where  his 
house  is  situated  or  the  political  party  to  which  he  helongs, 
qualities  which  "have  no  more  to  do  with  a  man's  ahility  to 
he  an  educational  leader  than  the  church  he  helongs  to, 
the  age  of  his  wife,  the  name  of  his  hahy,  or  the  size  of 
the  shoes  he  wears." 

Iiuliisfrldl  supcrrisors  in  rural  schools.  —  A  plan  that  is 
meeting  with  nuuh  success  in  making  supervision  more 
cllicient  is  the  appointment  of  county  "Uural  School  In- 
dustrial Supervisors."  These  are  industrial  teachers  work- 
ing under  the  direction  of  the  county  superintendent.  They 


THE    UnUL   KLEMEN.AUY   SCH(K)L 


i5 


visit  the  rural  schools  fcir  the  |mrjH»so  of  introducing  iiulus- 
triiil  siil»jc<'ts.  such  as  scwin^;,  cookinj;,  j^ardcninn,  niaiiuni 
Iraininj;,  and  the  hkc;  and  they  also  assist  in  t'st;d»lisliin>^ 
(■(xikiiij;  cluhs,  caiuiinj*  chil)s,  corn  and  tomato  cluhs.  and 
school  iniprovcniont  uss<H'ialions.  During'  the  year  \i)\i, 
special  industrial  sujKTvisors  for  negro  schools  were  em- 
ployed in  one  hundred  and  sevcntcf-n  cr)unties  in  the  South- 
ern stales.  Viri^'inia  h.is  sevc  white  .-upervisors  working 
in  six  counties,  and  similar  olhi  crs  for  whilv  sihools  have 
heen  [jrovided  in  (ii>orj{ia  and  I>ouisian!i  '  In  l!)i;5,  there 
were  thirty-six  state  ofhcers  devoting  their  entire  time  to 
the  supervision  of  ruiv..  schools. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  AND  OHGANIZATION   OF  RIRAL 
8<HfX)L8 

Probably  the  ji.eatest  difect  of  all,  and  the  one  that  is, 
in  the  main,  resp<  nsihie  for  most  of  the  others,  is  the  way 
the  schools  are  administered.  The  district,  or  single  dis- 
trict, is  the  unit  in  twenty-tme  states  and  in  parts  of  four 
others.  The  township  i.-.  the  unit  in  t<-n  states  and  in  jjarts 
of  three  others.  The  county  is  the  unit  in  eleven  states  and 
in  part  of  one  other. 

The  di,<<trict  system  presents  the  most  objectionable  fea- 
tures. In  the  pioneer  days  the  choice  of  the  one-room  dis- 
trict school  was  j)erfectly  natural.  The  size  of  the  school 
de|)cnded  on  the  nuinl>er  of  people  within  traveling  dis- 
tance. The  teacher  "  boarded  round."  This  system  origi- 
nated in  Massachusetts  in  1789,  and.  according  to  Horace 
Mann,  it  was  the  most  unfortunate  law  ever  t  lacted  on  the 
siiltjcct  of  conunon  si-hools.  At  the  time  it  was  adopted 
( oiiditions  were  primitive,  and  the  .scIkxjIs  were  jxjor  and 
few;  but  to-day  it  stands  in  the  win  of  progress.  The  state 
Miperintendent  for  Kansas  says,  "No  system,  as  a  whole, 
("uld  be  devised  that  is  more  extravagant,  more  wasteful, 

'  <'<>inmissioner  of  Edueatiun.   Report,  1912.   United  States  liurcau 
of  EduLutiuD. 


46 


AGRirriTrRAL  EDITATION 


or  I«'ss  efTicient  in  socurinj;  direct  results  from  tlie  system 
in  vojjije  in  this  cowiilry  with  rehition  to  the  iiiana^'enient 
of  «)iir  s«-li(M)ls.  We  liiive  an  army  of  over  .'jOO.OOO  teachers, 
nianajjed  liy  another  army  of  •2,.")(MI,()(H)  oflicers  —  a  condi- 
tion of  affairs  that  ensures  exlravaj,'anee,  represents  a  vast 
amount  of  wasted  energy,  and  ren<lers  certain  a  disastrous 
lack  of  unity  and  co-ordination."  ' 

I'nder  this  systi-m,  each  county  has  from  fwenty-five 
to  two  hundred  and  fifty  entirely  (hstinct  school  systems, 
each  under  the  control  of  three  trustees,  many  of  whom 
luive  no  idea  of  the  re(|uirements  of  a  ^ood  s<'hool.  Through 
ti  county  superintendent  these  separate  systems  are  very 
loosi'ly  coimecfcd  with  the  slate  system  of  education  ad- 
ministered by  a  state  superintendent.  In  the  State  of 
Illinoi.s,  ahout  40,000  trustees  are  re(iuired  to  manage  2000 
teachers  and  to  control  an  exjx>ndilure  of  $!$,000,000,  which 
is  ahout  one  trustee  for  every  !i(7."»  of  expenditure  for  school 
purposes.  If  the  same  plan  were  followed  in  Chicago,  there 
would  now  l)C  rc(|uired  al)out  il')  different  h«)ards  of 
trustees."  Not  only  does  this  large  number  of  three-men 
school  boards  render  any  satisfactory  cocirdination  im|)os- 
sible,  but  it  does  not  even  result  in  the  efBcient  manage- 
ment of  the  one  school  of  which  they  have  the  direction. 

The  toicnship-unil  system  is  a  great  advance  over  the  dis- 
trict system,  but  even  this,  except  in  the  more  thickly  popu- 
lated regions,  is  too  small  a  unit.  Probably  one  of  its  great- 
est advantages  is  that  it  lends  itself  much  more  readily  than 
docs  the  district  .system  to  the  consolidation  of  schools. 

The  county-unit  system.  —  It  would  seem  that,  other 
things  being  eciual,  the  county  ought  to  make  an  ideal  unit 
for  .school  puq)oses.  In  most  other  public  affairs,  as  roads, 
bridges,  administration  of  the  law,  assessment,  and  taxa- 
tion, the  county  is  already  the  prevailing  unit.    The  advan- 

'  Fir>t  District  Normal  School,  Kirksvillc,  Missouri.    Bulletin,  1911, 
p.  61. 

•  Cubberley,  E.  P.    The  Improtemenl  of  Rural  Schools. 


THE    Rl'RAL   KI-EMKNTAKV    SCIKKH, 


»7 


tapirs  of  such  a  systotn  arc  tlic  al)olili(m  of  liK-al  district 


taxes  for  education,  thcc(|iiali/.atioii  of  tlic  tax  rate  lliroii, 


;h- 


out  tlic  entire  county,  equal  educational  opportutiitics  for 
Ixitli  <ity  and  country,  rural  teachers  |)ro|)erly  paid,  the 
same  (jualitications  exacted  of  teachers  for  country  as  for 
town,  and  the  sc1hh)1.s  in  session  the  same  length  of  term. 


In  spite  of  all  the  admitted  defe<'ts  and  disadvantages, 
the  rural  scIum>1  has  iH-rformed  a  u.-eful  Mrvice  that  could 
have  heen  rendered  by  no  other  agency.  The  countrj-  scIkm)! 
generally  represents  hut  a  single  class  of  jM-ople.  The 
rural  sch<M>ls  are  alreaily  in  existence,  they  an-  small  and 
can  confine  themselves  t;*  essentials,  they  are  <lose  to  the 
actual  conditions  of  life  of  the  children  who  attend  them, 
and  they  can,  if  they  so  desire,  utilize  this  cnvTonment  in 
their  educational  program. 

It  is  never  a  pleasant  task  to  point  out  defects,  and  it  is 
justifiahle  only  when  done  in  order  to  indicate  a  course  of 
action  that  is  calculated  to  remedy  the  deficiencies.  The 
next  chapter  w  ill  outline  sf>ine  remedies  which,  if  applied, 
will  make  the  M;h(M)ls  more  efficient  in  all  respe<'ts  and 
particularly  in  the  direction  of  affording  an  education  that 
shall  have  direct  reference  to  the  predominant  industry  of 
the  district,  which  in  most  cases  is  agriculture. 


.??'< 


l^'W, 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   IMPFOVEMENT   OF   THE   PURAL  SCHOOL 

In  outlining  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  rural 
school,  it  has  become  the  general  practice  to  sum  up  all  the 
defects  and  then  to  proclaim  "consolidation  "  as  the  great 
panacea.  Many  ardent  educationists  seem  to  have  the 
idea  that  all  attempts  to  improve  the  one-room  school  will 
delay  the  general  adojjtion  of  consolidation.  If  relief  is  to 
be  brought  to  rural  schools  in  this  generation,  we  must, 
while  encouraging  consolidation,  do  tho.se  other  things 
which  can  be  done  without  con.solidation. 

There  are  ai)i)roximalely  (),()0(),000  countrj-  boys  and 
girls  in  the  United  States,  and  under  favorable  circum- 
stances it  is  estimated  that  two  thirds  of  them  may  eventu- 
ally receive  their  education  in  consolidated  schfH)ls.  This 
will  leave  •i.OOO.OOO  children  who  will,  as  heretofore,  receive 
their  education  in  districts  where  physical  conditions  make 
con.solidation  inii)ractic  able.  It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that 
both  forms  of  .s<'hools  will  always  occupy  an  important 
place  in  the  educational  .system  of  the  United  States.  Some 
of  the  measures  that  may  be  taken  to  improve  the  rural 
schools  will  now  be  considered. 


THE   .SCHOOL   8rHVEY 

The  first  need  is  a  clear  understanding  of  I<K'al  conditions. 
I'niiti.iaiis,  newspapers,  and  maga/in»»>  hn\r  drawn  alJen- 
tion  to  s,»i,i(>  of  flu.  problems  in  a  more  or  less  sensi'tionul 
manner,  but  s<ieiitifi<-  investigation  is  neces.sary  to  discover 
facts.  Tliesc  can  be  found  only  by  the  personal  investi- 
gati)r  who  (-ui  stay  long  enough  in  one  district  to  become 
thoroughly  ((mver.sant  with  the  actual  condition-s.  The 
collection. .f  inf..rniation  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  it  is  only  a 


^i^^%'^^^^.m&^;^-mm  .m  -^w^. 


IMPROVTV^vr  OF  THE    RURAL  SCOOOL      49 

moans  toward         ond.    When  the  information  has  been 
gutlicri'd  it  shoL    .   -ad  to  definite  action. 

Surveys  of  the  i  iiaracter  required  have  Iwen  made  by 
the  "(JeorKia  Chib  "  for  the  study  of  rural  s<x-iolojor,  at 
the  State  Xornial  Sch.KjI  at  Athens.    This  organization 
grew  out  of  a  small  group  of  interested  people  who  met  in 
ati  inf<»rmal  way  to  discuss  conditions  in  the  State  of 
(Jcorgia.   In  1912  the  trustees  of  the  normal  school  estab- 
lished a  chair  of  rural  economics.   The  leader  of  the  club 
was  the  [)resident  of  the  s<-hool.  Finding  that  the  work  re- 
(|iiired  much  time  and  attention,  he  resigned  the  presidency 
to  give  his  undivided  attention  to  this  new  work.    Since 
liMO.  fifty-one  county  surveys  have  l)een  completed,  show- 
ing  in  d»>tail  the  gains  ami  losses  during  the  past  decade  in 
poi)ulati()ii,  agriculture,  industrj-,  roads,  sanitation,  .schools, 
aii.l  clninhes.    The  rcp»)rts  of  these  surveys  have  [teen 
giv(-ii  wide  circulation  through  the  newspapers.     They  con- 
tain iiiforiuation  much  of  which  has  never  l)efore  reached 
tlu'  i)n>ss,  and  in  many  cases  have  brought  about  concerted 
action  for  betterment. 


11-: 

i: 


ENERGIZING   THE  COM.MUNITT 

The  community  itself  is  the  vital  factor  in  the  upbuild- 
ing of  the  school  system.  By  financial  assistance  and  wise 
laws  the  State  may  do  much  to  assist  development,  but  in 
the  last  analysis  the  ideal  scho<il  can  be  realized  only 
through  the  efforts  of  the  local  authorities.  It  is  difficult 
for  any  movement  to  travel  very  far  in  advance  of  public 
«)F)iiiion.  A  conuuittee  of  the  National  Education  AswK-ia- 
tion,  r(;>orting  on  rural  .schools,  says:  "It  is  the  Wief  of 
fli<«  conuuittee  that  the  chief  cause  for  all  the  evils  above 
enumerated  is  the  low  educational  ideals  of  the  people  in 
rural  communities.  This  cause  exists  becau.se  of  the  lack  of 
a  i)n>pcr  conception  of  what  tnie  education  means,  of  what 
1-  possiblt.  in  the  field  of  industrial  education  for  country 
cli.Mreu.  and  of  its  value  to  them.  Lucking  this  conception. 


50 


AGRICITTITIAL  EDUCATION 


they  fail  to  a[)[)reriale  tin*  necessity  of  keeping  their  eliil- 
dreii  in  school  for  a  jmtiKT  length  of  time  and  for  making 
the  proper  expenditure  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
essentials  in  teaching,  for  adccjuate  eciuipment  and  super- 
vision. This  lack  on  the  i)art  of  the  rural  population  is 
largely  due  to  the  character  of  their  education  and  to 
their  environment.  While  r)tlier  causes  than  the  one  stated 
may  seem  to  have  operated  to  develop  conditions  inter- 
fering with  the  eflicieney  of  the  rural  school,  it  is  I  elieved 
that  all  such  causes  may  be  reduced,  in  final  analysis,  to 
the  one  stated.  If  this  is  the  correct  view,  it  follows  that 
the  prohlein  of  im[)roving  the  rural  .schools  resolves  itself 
into  the  problem  of  elevating  the  ideals  of  the  people  in  the 
rural  communities."'  To  bring  almut  this  desirabb  result 
there  should  be  inaugurated  a  nation-wide  campaign. 

Such  a  campaign  shouhl  extend  over  a  long  jxriod,  as 
educational  institution-  are  not  ma<lc  over  in  a  day.  Every 
possible  means  should  !><■  taken  lo  arouse  ttie  interest  of  the 
IK>ople.  The  men  conducting  the  campaign  shouUl  know 
the  educational  re(juirements  and  be  sympathetic  toward 
the  difficulties  of  the  situation.  They  should  not  scorn  to 
udiipt  advertising  nietlKxls,  j)osters,  pictures,  nK>ving  pic- 
tures, and  any  other  devices  that  can  be  employed  to  attract 
the  people.  Curiosity  comes  first,  then  interest,  and  if  the 
interest  be  sufficiently  aroused,  action  will  follow.  .\s  far 
as  the  Tnited  States  is  concerned,  no  organization  can 
carry  on  this  work  better  than  the  I'nited  States  Bureau  of 
Education.  The  funds  recpiired  will  be  large,  but  the  re- 
turns that  will  ac(  rue  in  greater  educational  and  industrial 
ethciency  will  fully  warrant  the  expenditure. 


THE    Ql'KSTION    OK    KrNlK-i 

The  main  problem  of  rural  education  is  unquestionably 
one  of  funds.  One  object  of  such  a  campaign  as  that  sug- 
gested should  be  to  bring  about  a  realization  of  the  fact  that 

•  N :ili. mill  lliliuat inn  .Vs-six-iuliou.  Industrial  Educaiion  in  SckM>L>  for 
Rural  Commututwi. 


IMPROVTMENT  OF  THE   RUIL\L  SCHOOL      51 

tlie  interests  of  the  rural  sdiools  are  of  the  utn»).st  concern 
to  the  (oiiunniiify.  and  tliat  money  .si)ent  in  this  direction 
is  a   i)rofitable   investment.    "What   tiie  average  farmer 
uanls  t(,  know  is.  Will  it  pay?   If  education  can  show  him 
that  a  study  of  hij,'h-hred  corn  will  bring  substantial  re- 
turns, he  is  willing  to  spend  more  money  on  the  country 
schools  and  to  si,end  it  in  a  better  way.    This  putting  an 
e-lucational  system  on  so  low  -t  basis  is  highlv  repugnant 
to  the  'educator'  who  cherishes  lofty    deals  of  'culture  ' 
•educational  processes.'  'periods  of  adolescence.'  etc    Hut 
some  of  us  who  have  to  work  m  an  atmosi)here  of  real  life 
h.ivc  to  meet  conditions  as  we  find  them."  » 

The  rural  school  has  never  received  adequate  financial 
Mipt,orl.  In  the  early  days  this  was  p,>rha,,s  unavoidable, 
i'lit  the  conditions  which  renderecl  the  dweller  in  the 
'■"untry  unable  to  pay  a  fair  .sc1uh>1  tax  are  rapidiv  disn,- 
iH^.rn.g.  The  land  has  greatly  imi)roved  in  value  the 
|"«'nlry  ,s  becoming  more  settled,  the  farmer's  burdens 
hav.-  become  lighter,  and  his  general  pros,KTity  has  ma- 
tt nally  increased. 

Property  in  the  country  is  generally  as.s<>ssed  at  a  much 
Jnw.r  i)roportion  of  its  value  than  in  the  citv,  and  .-ven  on 
tl:is  rate  of  assessment  a  lower  school  ta.i  is  paid.  Whether 
tin'  first  condition  can  be  remedied  or  not  is,  j)erhaps  an 
';l-M  -iuestion.  but  for  the  second  it  seems  imFx)ssil,le   to 

'""'"">* nomic  justification.   In  Kansas,  the  hxal  scj-ool 

tax  pu.l  by  towns  an(t  .  ities  in  IDlO  was  ciirhty  per  cent 
■ix.refh.ui  that  paid  by  country  districts;  .,.  Missouri  the 
»^'x  HI  towns  and  citi-w  is  over  .seventy  percent  higher  than 
'"  the.ountry;  i„  Minnesota,  the  city  tax  is  three  times  that 
[••'"I '"  tlu'  country;  in  Ohio,  towns  an.l  .ities  pav  more 
tiKM.  ten  per  cent  higher  tax  than  rural  di>truts;  'and  in 
N'  .r.,>ka  and  Iowa,  the  town  .nd  city  rate  is  about  double 
llial  >)\  (lie  country. - 

'   K.T.i.  O.  J.   A  mong  Cot  ■ .  'y  Srhooh. 

'  IklLs,  G.  it.   Stu  ldt.aa  in  liurai  Schoolr. 


I 


5ft 


AGRICULTUR.VL  EDUCATION 


State  aid  for  rural  scliools  is  the  only  satisfactory  solu- 
tion of  tlit>  prohloin.  Wlicrt'  financial  aid  is  >,'ivcn,  several 
precautions  must  he  'akcn.  Lump  sums,  ^ivcn  to  districts 
without  special  conditions,  are  lu'ver  satisfactory. 

Tlie  ultimate  success  of  the  sc-hools  depends  on  local 
pride,  local  initiative,  and  l(K-al  taxation.   Only  two  states 
attempt  to  solve  the  prol)lem  l)y  a|)i)ropriatinj,'  lump  sums 
out  of  the  state  treasury,  namely,  Mississippi  and  Geori^ia. 
The  rank  of  these  two  states  in  the  c«)lunm  of  illiteracy  is 
forty-fifth  and  forty-sixth.    Duriiif,'  the  last  twenty  years 
the  cotmnon-school  api)ropriation  of  Georgia  has  nearly 
quadrupled,  hut  the  place  of  the  .state  in  the    illiteracy 
colunm  has  remained  the  same.  The  state  slunild  encourage 
each  community  to  spend  its  own  money  hy  distributing 
state  ai)propriations  on  a  sliding  .scale  according  to  the 
local  tax  levy.   "  It  is  manifestly  unfair  to  a>k  the  peoi)le  of 
towns  and  cities  to  help  pay  for  the  suppor*  of  rural  .scIum)1s, 
through  the  medium  of  the  state  treasury,  excei)t  on  con- 
dition that  the  patrons  of  the  .schools  themselves  do  their 
fair  .share.   Mr. '  .\.., '  living  in  a  town  where  he  pays  twenty 
mills  school  tax,  ought   not  to  be  asked  to  improve  Mr. 
*13's'  rural  .schools,  while  Mr.  'IJ'  is  iiimsclf  paying  but  ten 
mills  .school  tax.   The  farmer  is  as  able  as  any  other  chiss 
to  pay  a  fair  rate  of  tax  for  his  schools,  and  should  be  will- 
ing to  do  so  before  asking  for  aid  from  other  .sources.  Rural 
education  must  not  be  jilaced  on  the  basis  of  a  mi.ssionary 
enterprise.   Stale  aid  should  be  ux'd  to  compensate  for  the 
difference  in  the  economic  basis   for  taxation  in  different 
localities,  and  not  for  a  difTerence  in  the  rate  of  tax  between 
h)caliti«'s  tliat  are  e(iually  able  to  j)ay  the  same  rate."' 
Poverty  cannot  be  pleaded.  There  is  plenty  of  money  avail- 
alile.     This  is  shown   by  the  large  sums  wasted  and  often 
W(trM>  than  wasted  on  alcoholic  beverages,  tobacco,  chew- 
inu'  gum.    andy.  and  baseball. 

'    \U-Ha,  (j.  H.      .Viit  IiULi:i  in  Rural  6choula. 


1 


IMI'ROVEMENT  OF  TIIE   RITIAL   SCHOOL      53 


THE    rr.lSTY   as   TilR    ADMIMSTRATIVK    I'MT 

TIic  ((.utity  should  h,   taken  as  the  unit  of  orpuiization 
f..r  srliool  purpo  .'s.    It  should  In-  given  full  control  over 
all  huil.lings.  teachers.  exi)enditures,  and  sui)ervi.sion.  sub- 
ject totherei,'   '  ti.ms  of  the  state  department  of  education 
No  power  for  working  luiv  ',ief  s'    uld  U- left  inthehandsof 
trustees  who  have  no  pro|>er  cone  ej)tion  of  tju-  need  for  ed- 
ucation and  a  strong  disinclination  to  >pond  monev  for  any 
ferrn  of  nnpruveni.    t.    The  legislation  giving  eontrol  to 
the  county  shoi    i  Ik-  mandatory  and  not  permissive.   It  i.s 
us<>less.  in  the  majority  of  c;  .es,  f    gi%e  a  district  the  p«,wer 
to  .lo  soiP.thmg  it  has  never  done  and  does  not  want  to  do 
'J  he  who.     field  of  cducMional  effort  should  be  entirely 
divorced  from  pdlitital  considerations. 

T»K    NKEU    KOR   MALE   TEACHERS    IN    THE    RURAL   SCHOOLS 

Hcfcren.  ■  has  already  l,een  made  to  the  rapid  increase 
of  uo,„cn  m  the  teaching  profession,  and  in  many  states 
^^..,^.Ml  are  also  bemg  appointed  as  superintendents    The 
rnam  reason  for  the  employment  of  women  in  \nyth  capaei- 
M-s  m  country  districts  is  that  they  are  willing  to  take  posi- 
M'us  at  the  low  salaries  offered.   In  order  to  attract  men  to 
the  j.rofession  and  to  retain  them  in  it.  I„>tter  salaries  and 
.   Ii<r  .n.lu,.ements  will  hav,  to  be  offered.   It  is  argued  th.it 
lie  Mhools  are  sn.all  an,|  not  able  to  pay  salaries  sufficient 
t->  '•nal>le  a  man  to  estal)lish  a  home  in  the  country     \s  a 
nn.cly  for  this,  why  should  not  the  teacher  in  rural' dis- 
tri..fs  eon.l.me  fanning  with  his  teaching.   Land  is  cheap 
j'li'l  the  !H„e  cannot  come  too  soon  when  the  State  will 
'asc  power  to  refuse  (,fficial  recognition  t<,  anv  rural  school 

i.„  d.Hs  not  provi.le  a  residence  with  a  small  farm  attached 
f'T  the  r.,ral  school.naster.  This  would  make  jM-ssible  the 
I..r:uanent  c>u{,loyment  of  a  married  ,nan.  Denmark  and 
1-ran..-  ollow  tlu^  practice,  and  both  countries  have  largely 
.^"Ived  the  rural  problem.  ^   ^ 


l[ 


II 


I  I 


w 


i 


l^  -v. 


-■•v/^ 


y.:M't 


'u  .      'C'-'m:-  V  > 


M 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


ADAITINC.  THK   UIHAL  HCIIOOL  TO  KIKAL  CONDITIONS 

Tlic  ifica  lliul  Idsmi  and  ( ity  srhools  should  l)e  taken  as 
inodfis  for  tlir  country  must  l>c  discarded.  It  is  an  old  hut 
v»Ty  unwise  tradition  which  urges  that  what  is  ^jood  for  the 
city  is  good  for  the  country.  For  the  pa.st  twenty  years  the 
city  .schools  have  held  the  center  of  the  stage  and  have 
come  almost  universally  to  he  looked  upon  as  th«-  pattern 
upon  which  the  country  .schools  must  he  modeled.  A  coun- 
try school  is  pecidiar  to  itself,  and  und«T  proper  conditions 
the  education  It  affords  cannot  he  excelled  hy  that  given  in 
the  hest  city  sch(K)ls.  Parents  living  in  the  country  need 
have  no  nii.sgivings  as  to  educational  advantages  helow  the 
liigh  .sch(K)l,  if  they  will  make  the  country  school  what  it 
might  be. 

UK-MONSTUATION,   OK   MODEL,    S<noOI-S 

Most  countr>'  people  recjuire  practical  demonstration  of 
new  methods  before  they  can  be  persuaded  to  adopt  them. 
Just  as  object  lessons  are  of  great  value  in  the  schools  and 
demonstration  farms  and  plots  have  proved  their  worth 
in  agricultural  extensicm,  so  demonstration  schools  might 
prove  of  etpial  value  in  the  improvement  of  rural  schools. 
Any  succ-e.ss  that  has  attended  the  Macdonald  movement 
in  Canada  is  due  to  the  adoption  of  this  principle  of  prac- 
tical demonstration. 

The  deuKmstration  school  is  said  to  have  originaleci 
with  John  Noland.  Superintendent  ot  Schools  in  Madison 
County,  Kentucky.  The  intention  is  to  make  at  least  one 
s<hool  in  each  educational  district  what  all  .should  l)e<'ome. 
Imitaticm  and  emulation  arc  expected  to  accomplish  the 
rest.  In  the  year  1910-11,  the  Stale  Superintendent  of 
Kural  ScluM)ls  in  Kentucky  selected  ten  schools  in  each  of 
ten  comities  well  distributed  throughout  the  .state.  The 
county  superintendent  placed  these  schools  under  the  im- 
mediate direction  of  the  State  Rural  School  Supervisor.  In 
each  of  the  selected  schools  a  teacher  was  placed,  who 


I 
I 


f 


msm^'^'k 


^ 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL   55 

a>n"<^'l  to  manage  the  schools  as  direotefl  }>y  the  state  siifXT- 
intendeiit.  Sevni  or  i-ij^ht  other  .schools  were  groii|MHl  with 
each  detnonstralioii  sciiooL  For  each  ^roiip  an  extra  "sub- 
stitute" teacher  was  ennaj,'e(l.  This  substitute  t(K)k  the 
phice  of  each  re^juhir  fea<her  in  Ihi'  ^Toup,  in  turn,  so  that 
the  regular  teachers,  one  at  a  time,  couhl  s|M'nd  one  or  two 
w«^ksin  the  central  school  in  stu<lying  the  methods  adopted 
by  the  mo<lel  teacher.  Thest>  s<-h(>ols  are  now  more  than 
two  hundred  in  nunifnT  and  their  immediate  oversight  haa 
!>een  placed  in  the  hands  of  county  su|H'rvis(»rs.  'I'he  same 
plan  is  being  followed  in  oth«T  slates  than  Kentucky. 

Many  promising  exiMriments  and  successful  efTorta 
toward  educational  iK-ttcrment  make  the  serious  mistake 
of  hiding  their  light  under  a  bushel.  There  should  Im-  a  day 
set  apart  once  a  month  on  which  the  i)eopIe  living  in  the 
district  should  visit  the  schools  and  be  shown  what  is  l)eing 
done,  and  wherein  the  schools  are  lacking.  The  patrons 
should  be  made  ashamed  of  <iefects,  proud  of  achievements, 
never  c()nij>lacent  nor  s^itisfied,  but  always  anxious  to  ac- 
complish more. 

Model  rural  schools  are  l)cing  erected  in  connection  with 
many  normal  schools  and  these  may,  to  some  extent,  serve 
the  purixrs*'  of  demonstration  schools.  They  are  u.sed  for 
the  purpose  of  training  teachers  for  the  rural  schools. 
There  is  a  danger,  however,  that  these  s<-h(M)ls  may  go  l>e- 
yond  the  requirements  and  financial  abilities  of  rural  dis- 
tricts and,  like  the  model  farms,  in  some  instances  defeat 
the  objects  for  which  they  were  established.  There  is  also 
danger  from  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  rural  conditions 
have  to  be  improvised. 


THE   NEED   FOR   BETTEU   ULILDING8 

The  present  tyjK'  of  building  must  l)e  improved  and 
I)rovision  made  for  a  new  type.  Sjx'aking  generally,  it  is 
probably  true  that  no  more  unsightly  and  unsjmitary 
buildings  are  to  be  found  anywhere  than  a  large  majority  of 


\^^^^^^^^^h^g^;^^ 


88 


AGRinLTrRAl.  EDITATION 


the  rural  sch(M)lh(nisrs.  If  these  scIkkiIs  existed  in  a  town 
or  city,  they  would  Iw  eoudeniiud  liy  the  health  odiccrs. 
A  Rurjil  School  I^-ller  issued  l>y  the  I'nited  States 
Bureau  of  K<lueatiori  on  February  li),  I!>I4.  ^'ives  an  ac- 
count of  the  renovation  of  a  (ouiilry  s<liool.  It  t(H)k  just 
one  workiii),'  day  «)f  eij,'ht  hours  to  transform  a  Tennessee 
rural  scIkmjI  building?  that  was  m  very  had  eondition  into  a 
huildinf,'  «)f  whi<h  any  eornniunity  nii^ht  Ik-  proud.  What 
was  aecornplished  in  this  inslane*-  by  eonuiuuiity  i<)<i|M'ra- 
tion  can  be  carried  out  effe<'tively  by  any  county  su|)erin- 
tendent,  teacher,  or  school  iniprovenient  association.  'I'his 
demonstration  in  public-schiMil  iniprovemetit  was  or;,'an- 
ized  by  Professor  Ilaworth.  of  the  Ka>t  Stat»'  Tennessee 
Normal  School.  He  fir.>t  securcfj  the  codiM-ration  of  the 
County  Hoard  of  K<lucation  of  McMinn  County,  in  which 
the  (h-monstration  wa.s  carried  out.  lie  also  secured  the 
help  of  tile  teachers  of  the  county  and  of  the  patrons  of  the 
Neil  S<h(M)l,  the  plan  In-inj,'  to  show  what  any  neif,'hborhof)d 
can  do  in  one  day  by  united  action  in  the  improvement  of 
school  buiIJinf,'s  and  grounds. 

A  band  of  teadiers,  'MuhA  patrons,  and  normal  students 
marched  out  to  the  Neil  School  early  in  the  morning  to  l>e- 
gin  operations.  The  workers  were  armed  with  shovels,  hoes, 
n.ves,  cari)enter's  tools,  paint,  whitewash,  and  .soap.  They 
luiiled  on  new  boards  where  they  were  needed,  painted  the 
building,  built  a  chimney,  cleaned  up  the  rubbish,  scrubbed 
the  floor,  renovated  the  entire  interior,  constructed  a  book- 
ca.se  for  the  teacher,  tinted  the  walls  a  pearl  gray  color,  and 
hung  pictures.  The  old  desks  wen«  removed  and  new  desks, 
supi)lied  by  the  district,  were  placed  in  jwsition.  The 
expense  amounted  to  $.'J3.  It  included  twelve  gallons  of 
paint,  five  gallons  of  lin.seed  oil,  four  paint  brushes,  half  a 
bushel  of  whitewash,  two  dollars'  worth  of  weather-board- 
ing and  lathing,  two  pounds  of  nails,  four  window  .shades, 
material  for  sash  curtains,  four  pictures,  a  numlx-r  of  books 
to  start  a  library,  and  one  American  flag. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  TIIE    RIIIAI.   SCHOOL      .,7 

Of  .m.rsr  it  m„y  f»o  sai.l  with  prrf.-cf  truth  that  ,.fT„rts 
of  tl...  k.n.l  .sIh,„I,1  ,.„t  Im-  r..,.,ir..,|.  I.„f  H,,.,.  „,„>•  m'v.TJh..- 

.»  !>.•  nrrvssary  m  ..rder  to  show  what  ,  a..  Ik-  donr  ;.,.,!  to 
t'ruvA  niMUt  itnprovcraent  within  a  «-a.s<.nablo  tinu-  If 
K..Hn.  ly  applio,!.  su.-h  pbns  wn„h|  within  a  nu.nth  work  a 
n-vohit.on  „.  the  appnira.Hv  of  tlu-  connf  ry  .scIum.I.s.  Many 
of  th.m  nuKht  uruh-rKo  rdapsc..  hut  if  only  fifty  fx-r  m.t  ..f 

Ij.-  schoo  s  wore  kept  in  the  condition  in  whi.h  th.v  were 

hy  t  u.  hand  of  workers,  the  effort  wouhl  he'worth 

u     e.  U  hen  nlueafon  .s  lcK,ke<l  u,K.n  in  its  proper  li«ht.  it 

u.ll  he  reeo,.Hzed  that  workaround  the^-hool  huiKJin^sand 

ground,  can  he  nmde  a  factor  iu  the  education  of  the  jnipils 

THE   ONK-Rf)OM   WHOOL 

It  is   generally  assumed    that    the  one-teacher  school 
nu>    of  ne<.ess,ty  }^  a  one-rm.m  s.h.H,|.  A  new  ki.nj  of 
^inldu.,  .s  required.    Many  country  districts  have  a  ,KK,r 
M  liool  and  a  p,H,r  chunh.    One  type  of  huihiin,.  exis  s  in 
•ra.  hca  ly  all  the  rural  districts  of  the  United  States,  and 
■s  .s  the  tyre  that  was  adopted  when  public  education 
f.r^  .ame  into  ex.stenr^e.  The  sc-hool  erecte.l  on  the  grounds 
J'f  t  e  Nornu.1  S<.h.K>l  at  Kirksville.  Mis.s<.uri.  is  an  ,men"p 
.  show  tha    a  rural  school  can.  for  an  expen<liture  of  $3.10 
'  addition  to  the  usual  cost  of  a  ko<kJ  building,  have  all 
t  -  ."nven.ences  that  modern  requirements  in  education 
.•man.1.  I  rov.sion  is  made  for  manual  training,  household 
s«  I.  mo,  an.l  agriculture.  The  .schcK>l  is  well  light^l.  heated 
"".1  V  nt  ated  and  could  I.  built  in  any  rural  distrtt  in 
M.^-.in  for  about  $1200.   A  similar  school  has  »>een  built 
u  er^tr  Tr"*'  '^""'^"  "'  Agriculture  at  Cornell 
.      r  .te?f       Z  "  ^  ^•"'^-^'-^^h"  ■'^•h-^I.  "ith  a  workshop 
..rated  from  the  cla.ssroom  by  folding  dcK,rs  .s<,  that  one 
'•'"-r  can  manage  both   rrK,ms  when  necessary.    The 
'   al  cost  was  $10S.T.S2.  while  the  average  cost  ot  rural 
'>'     buildings  and  sites  in  New  York  State  when  the 
6.  li.M.I  was  built  was  $1833.63. 


h,l.  ROCOPY    RESOIUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


\M     M  2.5 


?„  1^     IIIII2.2 


|36 


!:  u 


2.0 


.8 


1.25 


1-4  mil  1.6 


1— _  "'6)   288  -  59R9  -  ."a. 


8S 


AGRICULTUR.\L  EDUCATION 


THE   ARRANGEMENT   OF   COMMUNITY   BUILDINGS 

Why  should  not  every  district  have  its  educational 
block  or  community  center?  Here  could  be  group<^d  the 
school,  surrounded  with  aini)le  grounds  and  gardens,  the 
residence  for  the  schoolmaster  and  his  family,  the  church, 
the  [)ublic  assembly  and  amusement  hall,  the  park,  the 
athletic  grounds,  the  skating-rink,  and  the  cooperative 
creamery,  the  cheese  factory,  the  bakery,  and  the  like. 
Sucli  a  center  would  be  a  rallying-point  and  would  do  much 
to  revitalize  the  whole  neighborhood.  In  planning  such  a 
center,  foresight  should  be  exercised  and  future  require- 
ments should  receive  due  consideration.  Not  all  the  build- 
ings need  be  erected  at  once,  but  the  land  could  be  secured; 
and  if  a  definite  plan  were  adopted  and  the  building  mate- 
rial decided  upon,  the  block  when  completed  would  be  an 
harmonious  whole.  There  is,  of  course,  a  practical  diffi- 
culty in  carrying  out  such  a  scheme,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
community  institutions  are  now  largely  established  and 
their  locations  are  not  readily  changed;  but  in  new  settle- 
ments, and  where  new  buildings  are  being  erected,  the  plan 
proposed  could  be  gradually  put  into  effect. 


THE  NEED   FOR  COMPULSORY   ATTENDANCE 

A  law  requiring  attendance  at  school  until  the  age  of  at 
least  fourteen  years  should  be  placed  on  the  statute  books 
of  every  state  and  province.  Its  enforcement  should  be 
entrusted  to  officers  entirely  free  from  local  influences.  A 
large  number  of  children  of  school  age  are  not  even  en- 
rolled in  the  schools  and  the  attendance  of  those  that  are 
enrolled  is  lamentably  irregular.  In  addition  to  the  loss  of 
education  by  the  children  themselves,  this  leads  to  great 
economic  waste,  as  the  schools  are  kept  open  however  low 
the  attendance.  The  attendance  laws  and  the  laws  regu- 
lating child  labor  should  be  as  rigorously  enforced  in  the 
country  as  they  are  in  the  towns  and  cities. 


m 


\    I  CM  \  ||;\    (  iiMMiM  1^    (  i:\  hi; 

l!.pr,Ml„.-.-,|  t,,„„  ,  ,„  „|,„  M,  niti,-..,,(  I  v,,..n„„.„i  ~t,,t,uMs 
1  niti'i!  >!,it.--  l>..|,uitiii.i,t  ..I  A-ririiltiu..- 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE   RURAL  SCHOOL 


HQ 


SOME  NOTABLE  EXAMPLES  OF  RUnAL  SCHOOL  IMPROVEMENT 

As  a  fitting  conclusion  to  this  chapter  it  will  Ik-  pertinent 
to  outline  some  .school  conditions  that  have  been  achieved 
in  certain  states,  and  finally  to  describe  the  conditions  that 
exist  in  what  is  perhaps  the  most  educationally  advanced 
of  the  European  countries,  namely,  Denmark. 

Rural  schools  in  Iowa.  —  The  A.s.so<-iati()n  of  Southern 
School   Superintendents  recently   made  a   study  of   the 
schools  of  the  Middle  Northwest.   During  this  study  they 
visited  the  schools  of  Page  County,  Iowa,  and  the  follow- 
mg  particulars  are  gleaned  from  their  reiK)rt.    It  must  lie 
remembered  that  the  visiting  delegates  were  men  of  ex- 
perience, men  who  knew  what  to  look  for,  and  who  could 
not  be  deceived  by  those  preparations  which  are  generally 
made  for  the  special   benefit  of  visitors.    The  schools  in 
Page  County  were  under  the  sufiervision  and  direction  of 
Miss  Je-ssie  Field,  and  they  have  won  a  national  reputation 
among  rural  schools.    In  this  county  there  are  no  cities  or 
large  towns;  the  population  is  rural,  and  the  occupation 
almost  entirely  agriculture. 

The  purpose  of  the  investigation  was  "to  study  the  best 
that  had  been  done  in  the  correlation  of  the  work  of  the 
one-teacher  rural  school  with  farm  life  and  agricultural  oc- 
cupations." The  buildings  were  plain  and  inexpensive.  On 
the  outside  they  were  painted  and  on  the  inside  papered 
and  furnished  with  all  necessary  equipment.  "The  school- 
houses  were  not  built  in  strict  accordance  with  the  well- 
established  principles  of  school    architecture  as  to  light, 
heat,  ventilation,  dimensions,  etc.,  but  the  charm  about 
these  schools  was  that  they  had  been  transformed  into  real 
homes.  The  school  grounds  were  small,  but  attractive  and 
well  kept.    Ten  schools  were  visited.    The  teachers  were  all 
women,  but  women  of  maturity,  training,  and  experience. 
Every  one  iuid  received  one  or  more  years  of  normal  in- 
struction, and  all  but  one  had  had  several  years  of  success- 


il. 


m 


■;..,,:,  ^U- 


.V. 


60 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATIOx\ 


ful  tcarhiriK  cxiMTicnrc.   Several  had  been  tearhinR  in  the 
sanio  school  for  years.  Th*-  salaries  ran;,'e<i  from  $4.>  to  8G.5 
per  month,  and  the  terms  from  seven  to  nine  months.  The 
schools  were  limited  to  a  course  of  eij,'ht  years'  work  and  no 
hi^h-school  work  was  attempted.    In  the  s(h(K)ls  a  farm- 
life  atmosphere   had   been   created;   agriculture   and  the 
things  relating  to  farm  life  j)ermeated  the  life  of  the  .school. 
Attractive  pictures  of  farm  produce,  farm  animals,  farm 
flowers,  farm  weeds  and  vegetables,  country  landscai)es  and 
barnyard  scenes,  hung  on  the  walls,  and  interesting  collec- 
tions  of  produce  and  fruits  were  arranged  in  cabinets." 
A  .special  arithmetic,  dealing  almost  exclusively  with 
practical  farm  problems  such  as  the  child' en  and  their 
parents  need  to  solve  every  day,  had  been  pre[)ared  by 
the  county  superintendent,  and  was  used  in  the  schools. 
Selected  bulletins  from    the    different  state  and  federal 
departments,  relating  to  agricultural  pursuits  and  farm 
problems,  were  displayed  and  kept  within  easy  reach  for 
reading  and  reference.  In  addition  to  the  creation  of  this 
farm-life  atmosphere,  much  of  the  instruction  of  the  school 
was  related  to  the  everyday  life  and  work  of  the  farm. 

These  schools  are  rural  schools,  not  city  schools  in  the 
country,  and  the  means  adopted  for  the  creation  of  such  an 
atmosphere  are  so  simple  and  practical  as  to  be  easy  of  ap- 
plication to  the  country  at  large,  even  by  teachers  without 
sjiecial  agricultural  training.  None  of  the  teachers  in  these 
schools  had  been  specially  trained  to  give  agricultural  in- 
struction. 

Scoring  rural  schools  in  Arkansas.  —  In  many  parts  of 
the  country,  attempts  are  being  made,  with  considerable 
success,  to  bring  the  rural  schools  to  a  high  state  of  effi- 
ciency. One  of  the  means  adopted  is  the  "score  card." 
The  following  is  an  example  of  such  a  card,  used  in  the 
schools  of  .\rkansas.  While  not  all  jx^rsons  may  agree  with 
the  number  of  points  assigned  to  each  item,  the  plan  is  one 
to  be  highly  commended:  — 


■?1 


IMTROVEMEXT  OF  THE   RURAL  SCHOOL 
RURAL  SCHOOL  SCORE   CARD 

FOR   RATLNQ   AKKAX8AS  SCHOOLS 

(To  he  „sc<l  l,y  C.unty  S.,pcrinf,-n.h-nt  wli.-n  visit- 
ing and  iu>ii)ttlHig  rural  schools  of  C(jurity.) 

County, 

School  District  No 

Name  of  School 

Date  of  Viait 

Scored Points. 

Superintendent. 

To  County  Sui)eriiitendent.s  and  Teachers: 

This  Rural  S<h.M,l  Score  Card  ha.s  lK>en  prepare,! 
for  use  by  county  superintendents  when  visiting  the 
rural  schools  o  their  counties.  The  aim  Ls  to  fix  a 
definite  workable  standard  of  ideal  conditions  for 
these  scliools  in  all  points  which  make  for  their 
greater  efficiency.  It  will  be  remembered  that  more 
than  80  per  cent  of  our  boys  an<l  girls  are  being  ed- 
ucated in  our  country  schools  and  if  by  the  use  of 
these  cards  school  con.litions  can  be  improved  we 
-^ttll  feel  that  their  use  has  been  worth  while 

/  f  ^f"' an'i  judicious  use  of  these  Score  Cards 
wefeehonfident  that  you  will  beabU-  to  encourage 
and  stimulate  w,-ll-direct.Hl  efforts  for  better  ,^m 
ditions  m  our  rural  schools  to  the  en.l  that  these 
schools  may  be  made  fully  efficient.  We  earnestly 
urge  that  you  take  these  Score  Cards  an<l  use  them 
for  the  purpose  in  view  in  their  preparation  -  the 
betterment  of  these  schools  in  everj-  way. 
Very  sincerely, 

J.  L.  BoxD, 
Supervisor  of  Rural  Schools. 

Geo.  B.  Cook, 
State  Superintendent. 


61 


W  AGRICULTLILVL  EDUCATION 

SCORING 


/.   Il,.„m,l  (1.;  V.nnU) 


1.  (Irciiimln  i)f  rii  lc;i-t  u\\f  ucri'  uml  f.  ;ii  i<l 

2.  <;niiiri'l»  will  ilraiiic.l  aii'l  im  i-ly  ki'iJt    ..  . 
.t  Iw.iif'KKt  .jiitli.Mi.^.B,  will  k.'pi  arnl  dean 

1  1  IriMin^l^s  ili.ir  (.r  trusli  unii  rulibmli 

.")  SliriililpiT.v  c,r  tri-i  1  wt  dut 

t<.  U  iitiT-Bii|i|:ly  (rum  nufc  Hourrc 


(;irfii 


//.   iJwllinutrSi  r.nntij 


nll-it. 


UniMiiiir  p.-iiTit('(l  nii'l  111  t'oixi  ri'iiuir.  .  ,      s 

/  v.;l...  I  1 .1 I      1  * 


■■!<■ 


C'lliil  anil  paiiili'il  or  pln.-tc 

;{.  Hi.rT^  Wl'll  MN'-pl   mill   walls 

4.  \V  iiiilowri  (It  an  with  paiii-.H  all  sn .'  . 

T>.  Wmiliiw  Mpaif  at  l.a.st  (mr  tifili  of  tl.Mir  xpiirc.    .'..''. 

0.  [.iirlit  (mm  n-ar  ami  miIpm  v  itii  ni>  KlarinK  ur  crona  li({lit» 

7.  Ciilin:;  uf  lit,'liiir  lolor  than  walJs 

H.  Winiluw-  with  ciioij  bliailiw .  .    '. 

!l.  iJoorn  with  liirka  anil  keys 

10.  .Nutiiinal  f  la« 


///.  A'vi<i//r>.f.,ri2.'  /'. 


S.  al.s  will  arranifcil  anil  nf  prii|.rr  >urs 

Suit.ililc  ch.iir  anil  i\iv\(.  fur  traclicr. 

<iu.>.n.laikl.i,aril,.. 

Jarki'tnl  ^tiivr,  ur  vpiitilatinit  nio-r  wjih  [iruper  ilurta. 

.Appropriate  wall  [lirtures  (at  lea.st  t«u) 

Siiit.alile  maiw.  rhart.s,  Rlobei.  eti- 

f'hililren  .•<upplieit  with  prui.er  hooks 

r.ihrary  with  Miiitahle  ^elietmn  of  boukB. 

Dietionary  with  staml  nr  raek. 


>i/<. 


10.  Sanitary  ilrinkinR  faiieets,  fountain  or  iniliviiiual  lirinkinK  rufw. 


/('.    Tiiickrr  (!s  Pinntnl 


P: 

nil-, 


1    With  first  (rrailr  cortifieatcs,  hiish  srhrxil.  rollcRe  or  normal  work 
J    Seeunil  term  ur  loirrer  in  present  schof.l 

3.  r.-ioK  modern  mi'thi>il» 

4.  Daily  attenilanee  !tO  per  eent  of  enrollment    and  enrollment  SO 

per  rent  of  enumiTatir.n 
.'),    Pupil.-i  oheilient  anil  at  work 
(1.    I'rot'rani  on  hoaril  or  wall  nml  rlosely  followed.  ....... 

'■   nr>'e  of  stmly  heinir  followed 


S. 

<». 
10. 
11 


Knows  well  the  suhjert.'S 

r.es'.ions  as.iiirned  with  rare '  \ 

HeL'i^le^  neat  and  well  kept , 

DoiiiK  re.iuiriHi  readinx  in  Teaeher's  Reading  Cirele.  . 


V.   Community  .trfi'rift*-.*  (12  Point*) 

1.  Sehool  irardenine  or  s|.erial  work  in  .Atrrieulturc  being  done. 

2.  \n  netive  Srhool  linproyeiiient  .Association 

3.  Itoy's  Corn  (  liih  » ork  earrietl  on .'  ' 

4.  Cirl's  CanninK  Cluh  work  earrieil  on 

5.  Literary  ."Society  or  Ilehatine  Club    '.'.'.'. 


P-'intu 


3 
3 

2 
2 

.SV^,.„/,  trnrino  .W  lo  Ifo  pninlx  will  he  rnted  at  ri„.A  ,\  Mrh'H,h;  ihm,,  ^carina  75  to 
9U  puiiUj  OS  Claai  li  .idmoU;  aiul  tlui.tc  scoring  tiU  tu  To  p<niU:i  ■i<i  CUa  C  achixJU. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  TIIE   RUR.VL  SCHOOL      63 

Rural  M  in  Dcnmark-^-TU,  measures  that  J>avo  l>.-o„ 
arlopted  to  bring  the  rural  sc-hcx^Is  of  Denmark  to  their 
present  state  of  efBcieney  are  full  of  sug^'estion  for  oth.-r 
-untnes.     Ail    normal    chil.lren    n.ust    attend    reKulariy 
throughout  eight  years.  A  fine  is  exacte.l  for  each  .lav  tha^ 
IS  nussed     As  a  result.  Danish  countrj^  districts  show  les 
t  .an  one  twentieth  of  one  per  cent  illiteracy .    No  child  is 
ol  ■gc.d  to  go  more  than  one  and  a  half  English  milcvs  to 
Ml.oo    and  there  must  not  Ik.  more  than  thirty  to  thirtv- 
five  children  in  a  room.   The  schools  are  well  graded,  and 
no  high-school  work  is  attempted. 

All  schcjolhouses  must  be  erected  in  accordance  with 
rules  laid  down  by  the  Minister  of  Education.   Evcr^-  rural 
community  of  reasonable  wealth  must  provide  a  suitabi^ 
covered  gj'mnas.um.  Districts  less  wealthy  must  furnish 
a  well-prepared  and  sanded  space  of  at  least  600  square 
•netres  in  extent,  for  outdoor  gymnastics  and  play     T^ 
sanitary  rc.,u.rc.me,.ts  are  very  stringent:  fl.K.rs  must  be 
scn.bfK.d  daily;  wcnxJwork  and  furniture  must  Ik^  wiiM^d 
with  a  wet  rag  daily;  once  a  week  rooms  must  be  cleaned 
^v.th  soap  and  water.    The  length  of  the  school  year  is  a 
nuninium  of  forty-one  we<.ks.  or  two  hundred  and  forty-six 
school  days.  Miool  is  carried  on  six  days  in  the  week    \n 
old  law  prescribes  that  all  children  shall  have  at  least 
twenty-one  hours  of  instruction  per  week  for  forty-one 
w.>ks  during  the  year.    The  older  c-hildrcn  may  thus  at 
ond  three  whole  days  and  two  half  days  instead  of  the  f u  1 
tune  during  the  summer,  while  the  same  holds  good  for  the 
younger  children  during  the  winter. 

The  teachers  for  these  rural  schools  are  required  to  have 

the  same  thorough  preparation  as  the  teachers   in  the 

^'radec^  schools  in  the  towns  and  cities.    Salaries  are  gov! 

•rned  l>y  law.  The  initial  salary  is  from  900  kroner  to  i400 

kroner  per  annum.    An  annual  increase  is  providcnJ  f„r 

ti.l'S.SI^lS''""'  '^'"''^-  ^"''*^  '^'-  »~  "f  K<i-- 


m 


61 


AGRICULTIIIAL  EDUCATION 


twenty  years,  until  \0(H)  kroner  additional  is  rearhcd,  so 
that  a  teacher  may  eventually  receive  4 KM)  kroner.  In 
addition,  teacliers  are  provided  with  free  lioines,  ran^;inj^ 
from  tliree  rooms,  in  the  case  of  unmarried  women  tea<liers, 
to  seven  or  eight  rooms  for  married  men.  All  teachers  arc 
entitled  to  a  garden  varying  in  size  from  a  small  lot  to 
nearly  an  acre.  This  is  plowed  and  planted  to  shrul)lK>ry 
and  fruit  at  conununity  exjjense.  These  gardens  are  u.sed, 
not  only  to  supplement  the  t»'acher's  income,  but  often  as 
experimental  plots.  These  additions  of  houses  and  garden 
amount  to  another  1000  kroner.  Then  the  teacher  may 
earn  another  100  kroner  by  acting  as  chorister  in  the  church. 
This  means  a  possible  total  salary  of  ii'tOO  kroner,  almcst 
three  times  as  much  as  the  average  salary  for  rural  teachers 
in  the  I'liited  Slates.  Fair  wages  and  a  long  tenure  of 
office  warrant  the  prosjMvtive  teacher  in  giving  adequate 
time  and  money  to  his  preparation  and  training. 

The  improvement  of  the  rural  school  has  been  dealt  with 
in  some  detail,  as  it  is  felt  that  such  improvement  is  vital 
to  effective  work  in  agricultural  education.  But  it  will  not 
be  wise  to  wait  until  all  these  improvements  are  effected 
before  placing  the  subject  of  agriculture  on  the  program 
of  the  rural  schools,  as  its  introduction  will  pave  the  way 
for  many  of  the  needed  improvements. 


CHAPTER  V 

TEACniXO   AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   RURAL   SCHOOL 

Thk  toiichin«  of  agriculture  should  begin  in  the  rural 
s<-li(M)ls.  In  some  cases,  particularly  in  the  one-nKjm  .s<h.H,l.s 
Kical  conditions  can  probably  never  Ik-  attained;  but  the 
ur-rncy  „f  the  matter  will  not  admit  of  delay.  It  is.  of 
cours...  desirable  and  luvessary  to  hn.k  for  ideal  conditi.ms, 
for  where  there  is  no  vision  the  nation  jn'rishes;  but  to 
s<-cure  satisfactory  and  reasonably  early  results,  we  must 
a.lapt  our  i)lans  to  existing  conditions  when  we  cannot 
modify  conditions  to  suit  our  plans. 

"  One  thing  is  cert^iin:  if  agricultural  education  is  to  Imi- 
eome  efficient,  the  work  of  ref.)rmation  must  be  carried  on 
in  the  country  schools."'  In  this  connection  it  must  Ix-  re- 
iiicmlH-red  that  out  of  every  five  hundred  boys  an.l  girls  at- 
tendmg  rural  s<-h.M)ls  only  one  ever  enters  an  agricultural 
college,  or  one  fifth  of  one  jxt  cent;  and  further,  about 
nmety  ,M-r  cent  of  the  Iw.ys  and  girls  in  the  common  sclux.la 
do  not  contmue  their  studies  Ijeyond  the  fifth  or  sixth 
grade.=  It  follows,  therefore,  that  whatever  is  to  be  done 
in  the  way  of  laying  the  foundations  of  agricultural  knowl- 
e<]ge  for  the  great  body  of  pupils  nmst  \yc  accomplished 
before  the  pupils  leave  the  elementar>'  school. 

It  must  l)e  recognized  that  the  rural  school  teacher  has  a 
great  d.>al  to  do.  The  teacher  in  the  country  must  conduct 
on  the  average  twenty-three  recitations  a  dav.  with  an 
iiverage  period  of  fifteen  minutes  each.  In  the  one-room 
school  the  number  of  recitations  is  approximately  thirty. 

'  'l^f'^th   •John.    Education  for  InduMrial  Purpose,.  Departraont  of  E.l- 
uratiiin.   Toronto. 

'  Farmers- Inst  it  ut.-.,  for  Young  People.   United  SUies  Department  of 
Agriculture.   Circular  m. 


eo 


A(.I{I(  ILTniAL  EDKATION 


with  an  avrrap-  time  of  clcvt-n  minutes  rarli.  I'ndcr  tli«vse 
<iriiiiMstaii(rs  tlir  very  .sn;;;,'csli(in  (if  a  new  study  is  nat- 
urally (|uilf  suHi(i»-tit  to  aroiiM'  anta^'onistn.  For  yrars  the 
ti-achcrs  havr  IxM-n  urp'd  to  vitalizr  the  course  of  .study 
and  to  hriiiK  tin-  schools  intoflos«'r  touch  with  tho  ptniph*, 
l)ut  the  untrained  teacher  has  In-i-n  uiiahle  to  <lo  this  and 
has  almost  <-ome  to  the  conclusion  that  those  who  give 
this  eouuM-l  know  no  Iwlter  than  they  how  it  is  to  Ikj 
done,  or  they  would  suf)plement  their  general  udvicc  with 
a  hill  of  particulars. 


TIIK  DKWA.ND  FOU  INSTUKTION  IN  AnHKTLTrUE 
The  demand  for  instruction  in  the  elemt-nls  of  agricul- 
ture has  Iki-u  made,  at  difftrent  times,  in  practically  every 
country  in  the  world.  In  .some  states  and  provinces  the 
subject  hiLs  made  eonsiderahle  progress,  hut,  generally 
8|M'aking,  this  has  lieen  due  to  the  enthusiasm  of  iniiividual 
teachers  working  under  exceptional  conditions.  That  the 
success  so  far  achieved  has  not  been  greater  is  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  subject  was  introduce<l  as  an  additional 
branch  of  study  into  an  overcrowded  <urri(ulum,  without 
any  consideration  of  options  or  ecjuivalents. 

Certain  adjustments  will  have  to  be  made,  but  the  un- 
trained teacher  mu.st  have  the  assistance  of  e.\perienee<J 
supervision  before  she  is  in  a  position  to  make  tJiese  ad- 
justments. We  can,  however,  witliout  any  injustice  ask 
tlie  teacher  in  her  intercourse  with  her  pupils  and  their 
parents  to  present  the  attractive  side  «>f  country  life.  In 
short,  we  may  reasonably  ask  her  to  create  a  farm-life  iti- 
liuence  throughout  her  scIkmiI.  This  influence,  without  any 
formal  instruction  in  agriculture,  would  do  nuich  to  change 
the  tliought  direction  of  the  \m\>\\.  I'roljably  the  induence 
the  teacher  exerts  has  a  greater  effect  on  the  mind  of  the 
child  than  the  actual  iuformatiou  she  imparts  or  the  in- 
struction she  gives. 


A(,lUCrLTniE   IS   THE    Rl  lUL   S<HOOL 


07 


TUt  COKHKlariON  OK  A(Jnut  KTfUK  WITH 


The  toju'hiri;,'  of 


IN   TIIK   (  rnni(  I  i,t 


OTHKR  Hl-njEf  T'l 


M 


"k'rinillun' 


•i'H'S  tu»t   «I«' 


rnnri(J  the 


-  ,.         "       ""  ""I  '"  iiiJind  jnc  onus- 

.s.or,  of  any  suIm--;  now  o„  ,|.,.  „r„,.ra,„.  hut  it  .|.k-.  nnvs- 
Mfato  a  n-v.s.on  of  those  suhj.vts.  A  <riti.al  study  .shouhl 
'<•  ".a.h-  of  ..uh  wlh  th..  ol,j..,.t  of  o,„itti„«  ,„att,.r  uhi.h 
h.H  no  prartK-al  applic-ation.  an.I  also  of  .i.ar.p,,^,  ,|„, 
;hn..l.on  of  what  .s  h-ft  ...  that  it  „.ay  .>c  rdat..!  to  hf. 
I  hcrrow.lniR  of  the  eurric.uh.rn  is  not  due  to  th.-  mnltii 
I'l'.'ty  of  .suhjerts.  hut  to  the  atte.npt  to  teach  in  tho.se 
su  .jerts  a  nun.ber  of  things  that  are  not  essential  • 

Ha.k.y  has  sjii.l.  in  .s,K«akinK  of  the  <iirrieuhnn.  "  Ka<h  of 
he  eonunc.n  branches  ean  Ik-  s<,  r..,rKanize<l  ..s  to  revolu- 
•on.ze  a»,^neulture  within  ten  years";  an.l  it  is  alo„«  the 
lines  of  the  reorKanization  of  the  (.,nunon  branches  that 
a;,'n<.ultural  education   in   the  elementary   sc-Ihm.I   .should 
"'.'•nly  pro<v..d.   The  primary  pur,H,.se  of  this  reor,n.ni/^. 
■'•"  -^  not  to  "revolutionize  aKri.ultur.-."  b.it  f.  ^'ive  a 
h«'tler  clucution  t..  the  child  and  to  make  him  a  In-tter 
nt.zen  and  a  more  intelligent  worker.   This  means  .si.npiv 
that    he  teachmg  should  bear  uik,„  the  life  the  chil.l  I,,' ds 
and  the  thmgs  that  come  within  the  range  of  his  daily 
experience.  ^ 

.Ujnrulture  applied  to  the  teaching  of  English.  -  One  of 
he  man.  subjects  of  study  in  any  educational  program  is 
-.l.sh.     I  he  teac  n.,  of  English,  on  the  principle  men- 
Lou,  would  nuo  ve  the  description  of  c-ommon  obj^.-ts 
..nd  the  typ,cal  sights,  soun.is.  ac-tivities.  and  occupations 
.f  .  he  countr>.    In  des<-r.bing  the.s..  objects  the  pupils  would 
<arn   to  use  the.r  eyes  and  to  appreciate  what  thc-y  .saw 
1  assages  of  prcse  and  vers.,  dcvscripfive  of  cc>u,.try  .s^-enery 
and  "J-c-upat.ons  could  be  read  with  advantage  more  fre- 
'inently  than  they  are  at  present.  The  pnpils  through  thc-ir 
'   '"'f^^fi-''  K<lu.ation  in  S<h<K,U  for  Rural  Commuaitic-..     NatiunJ 


rj  .r-; 


IP" 


68 


AGRICULTLR.VL  EDUCATION 


daily  experiences  would  realize  the  truth  of  tlie  literature 
and  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the  life  it  reveals. 

This  method  would  teach  En{,'Iish  at  least  as  effectively 
as  it  is  now  taught,  would  have  an  equal  cultural  value, 
and  would  unconsciously  direct  attention  to  farm  and 
country  life.  Unfortunately,  few  school  readers  of  this 
character  are  available,  but  the  need  is  being  felt  and  steps 
will  doubtless  be  taken  to  meet  the  recjuirement.  The 
Dc|>artment  of  Education  for  the  Province  of  Ontario  is 
ha\iiig  a  reader  prepared  along  these  lines. 

Ayricidture  applied  to  the  teaching  of  arithmetic.  —  There 
is  no  other  subject  in  the  school  program  that  lends  it- 
self more  readily  to  close  correlation  with  agriculture  than 
arithmetic;  yet  no  other  subject  has  failed  more  completely 
to  deal  with  real  life  problems.  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayrcs'  states 
that  he  was  called  upon,  on  one  occasion,  to  pass  an  opinion 
on  the  eighth-grade  textbook  in  use  in  a  certain  New  En<^ 
land  city.  He  made  up  an  examination  paper  from  the 
book,  and  this  he  induced  a  number  of  successful  business 
and  professioiud  men  to  try.  These  were  men  earning  froiM 
$;}()()()  to  $1.>,000  a  year.  Not  one  of  them  passed,  the 
highest  mark  attained  being  twenty-five  per  cent.  Dr. 
Ayres  gave  the  sanie  paper  to  his  fifteen-year-old  office 
girl,  who  had  just  left  scliool  from  the  eighth  grade.  She 
made  seventy  per  cent  of  the  total  marks  possible.  If  this 
inapplical)ility  to  the  needs  of  practical  life  is  found  in  the 
city,  for  which  the  textbook  was  prepared,  how  inapjilica- 
ble  it  must  be  to  the  country  where  practically  the  same 
textbook  is  used. 

When  an  arithmetical  problem  has  been  worked  out.  the 
answer  should  state  a  fact  worth  knowing  and  remember- 
ing, and  that  fact  should  be  one  which  has  some  ai)plication 
to  the  district  in  which  the  pupil  lives.  In  country  districts 
the  problems  might  deal  with  the  price  of  farm  produce, 

■  r<.iiinii^si..n."r  ..f  Hduciilioii.  Riporf,  VJH.  United  Slates  Bureau 
of  Eduealiou.    \\;u.hiui;lou.  D.C. 


AGRICrLTLTlE   IN  TIIE    RIRAL   SCHOOL       C9 

tho  cost  of  various  farmirif;  oprrnfions,  estimates  of  the 
cost  of  trans,,ort.  cost  of  erecting'  simple  hnilriin-s.  increase 
air  decrease  of  yield  per  acre,  and  nrnny  other  farm 
problems.  Every  school  should  have  as  part  of  its  equip- 
ment a  set  of  weights  and  measures,  a  pair  of  scales,  and  a 
praduated  rule.  With  these  many  practical  problems  can 
be  worked  out.  and  the  whole  subject  of  arithmetic  made 
more  practical  and  more  interesting. 

A,jriculture  applied  to  the.  teaching  of  geography.  -  This 
subject  should  be  based  largely  on  the  ol,servation  of  local 
cond.t.ons.  as  climate,  ,,revailing  winds,  rainfall,  soil,  and 
the  like,  and  their  effects  on  animal  and  vegetable  life  and 
en  the  activities  and  occupations  of  mankind.  It  is  not 
difhcult  to  see  how  teaching  along  these  lines  would  give 
interest  to  the  most  monotonous  country  life,  and  make  a 
walk  through  the  fields  a  tour  of  observation  and  education. 
Ihe  country  does  not  provide  the  attractions  of  the  city 
but  If  in  his  early  years  the  boy  can  be  shown  how  intensely 
interesting  are  all  the  sights  and  sounds  of  the  country  he 
^Mll  more  likely  l,e  content  to  find  his  life-work  there^ ' 

This  method  may  be  applied,  perhaps  in  a  lesser  degree 
to  other  subjects  on  the  program.    If  the  principle  "from 
the  known  to  the  unknown"  be  followed,  it  is  evident  that 
the  only  effective  way  of  educating  the  child  in  the  country 
will  l)e  through  agriculture,  which  comprises  the  evervday 
ife  of  the  farm  and  the  home.  This  type  of  education  will 
l)e  of  no  less  advantage  to  the  boy  who  afterwards  moves 
to  the  city.  He  is  being  trained  in  a  more  effective  manner 
by  these  methods  than  he  could  possibly  be  by  the  use  of 
illustrations  that  are  foreign  to  his  daily  experience.  Much 
has  been  accomplished  in  many  schools  without  anv  formal 
introduction  of  agriculture  as  a  subject  of  studv;  but  more 
than  this  ought  to  be  done.   Agriculture,  in  name  and  in 
fact,  should  have  a  place  on  the  program  of  every  rural 
school. 


^1 


70 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


NATURE  study:  ITS  PL.\rE,  puuposf:,  and  character 
Tilt'  basis  of  any  rational  course  in  agriculture  is  nature 
study,  but  this,  like  agriculture,  has  a  past  to  live  down. 
Nature  study,  at  first  intended  to  cultivate  habits  of  ob- 
servation, has  had  a  nunjber  of  other  purposes  superim- 
posed upon  it.  It  "came  into  our  sch(M)Is,  after  efforts  to 
teach  agriculture  had  failed  owing  to  lack  of  demand  for 
it  and  want  of  preparation  among  the  teachers,  after  the 
'ol)ject-lesson'  fad  had  begun  to  <lie  away,  and  when 
so-called  'elementary  science'  proved  too  dull  even  to 
thoroughly  awaken  the  interests  of  the  child."'  Nature 
study  is  difficult  to  define,  and  the  line  that  separates  it 
from  agri(;ulture  is  still  more  difficult  to  discover,  so  im- 
perceptibly does  one  shade  into  the  other.  Nature  study, 
as  far  as  it  is  natively  taught,  is  agriculture. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  lessons  on  natural 
objects  and  nature  study;  between  an  object  lesson  on  a 
piece  of  coral  and  the  study  of  the  rock  that  wears  down  to 
form  tlie  fertile  soil  of  the  farm;  between  a  lesson  on  an 
ostrich  from  a  picture  on  the  wall,  and  a  study  of  the 
poultry  in  the  farmyard;  between  a  lesson  on  the  cocoa- 
nut  palm  and  the  study  of  cabl)ages  or  corn  grown  by  the 
pupil.  Nature  study  implies  accurate  observation,  but 
accurate  observation  does  not  necessarily  mean  com/<!"te 
observation.  One  should  not  expect  as  complete  observa- 
tion and  inference,  even  in  regard  to  the  simplest  phe- 
nomena, from  young  children  as  from  older  pupils,  but  the 
observation,  as  far  as  it  goes,  sliould  be  accurate. 

The  history  of  education  exhibits  many  peculiarities.  .Ml 
subjects  are  first  j)laced  on  school  programs  for  their  utili- 
tarian value.  Then  long  after  utilitarian  value  has  disap- 
peared they  are  retained  for  their  cultural  value,  and  later 
they  arc  dropped  for  the  sake  of  subjects  that  are  sup- 

'  Aj,'ri(iiltural  Education.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Bul- 
letin i.    1907. 


AGRICn.Tl'RE   IN   THE   RUILVL  SCnOOL       71 

pnqod  f(>  con  fain  fioth  values.  This  has  l)een  somewhat 
tJie  rase  with  regard  to  nature  study.  The  economic  and 
practical  applications  have  l)een  ignored,  and  the  cultural 
aspects  strongly  empluusized,  hut  that  both  values  can  be 
secured  by  j)roper  treatment  is  now  being  conceded. 

The  study  of  the  horse  is  just  as  much  nature  study  as 
is  the  study  of  the  development  of  the  frog  from  spawn. 
What  is  the  objection  to  teaching  the  boy  about  the  horse, 
its  characteristics,  its  capacity  for  work,  the  kind  of  UmhI 
and  treatment  it  requires  in  order  to  ])e  able  to  |)erform  the 
best  service  for  its  master.'   Dr.  Andrew  M.  Soule,  presi- 
dent of  Georgia  State  Agricultural  College,  says,  "The 
teacher  is  forever  stumbling  over  the  words  'elementary 
agriculture'  and  wondering  what  their  significance  may  [ye. 
The  real  .leed  is  to  teach  the  child  about  the  life  by  which 
he  is  surrounded,  and  when  this  is  done  agriculture  will  be 
effectively  taught  no  matter  by  what  name  it  is  denomi- 
nated.   The  simplicity  of  the  methods  which  may  be  em- 
ployed with  children  in  the  common  school  accounts  for 
the  slow  progress  which  has  been  made,  for.  strangely 
enough,  every  one  has  been  trying  to  convert  the  simple 
elementary  facts  of  nature  into  an  abstruse  subject,  diffi- 
cult of  appreciation,  and  commonly  called  agriculture  for 
want  of  a  l)etter  name."' 

In  opposition  to  this  view  Dr.  Draper  once  said.  "Na- 
ture study  has  about  the  same  relation  to  real  agriculture 
that  sloyd  has  to  laying  out  an  electric  light  plant  for  a 
city,  or  laying  down  the  keel  of  a  battleship  —  calling  it 
agriculture  will  not  increase  its  importance  so  much  as  it 
will  confuse  some  minds  and  subject  us  to  the  criticism  that 
we  are  not  doing  what  we  i)ro«-laim."2  But  the  views  ex- 
pressed by  Dr.  Soule  are  rapidly  coming  into  general  prac- 


Prorecdings  of  Thirteenth 


'  ronforence  for  Education  in  the  Soutli. 
At.iniiil  Confcrenco. 

'  Draper,  .\ii,ir,-w  S.    Agnnillnre  and    its  Educational  Needs.    New 
lork  State  Education  Department.   Albany. 


1 


I 


(•svr 


72 


AGRiriXTURAL  EDTTATION 


fine,  and  nature  sUuly  is  bcinp  piven  an  inrroasing  eco- 
iK.inic  and  agricultural  trend  without  at  all  lessening  its 
cultural  value. 

iXafure  stmhj  through   cnUcrlinna  of  natural   ohjrds.  — 
Many  schools  have  centered  their  work  around  collections 
of  various  kinds  — weeds,  plants,  insects,  seeds,  eggs,  etc., 
and  one  way  of  encouraging  nature  study  is  by  their  ex- 
hibition.   Such  exhibitions  have  proved  very  successful, 
not  only  because  tliey  afford  means  for  the  exchange  of 
ideas  among  teachers,  but  because  by  means  of  an  exhibit 
the  good  work  of  a  school  l>ecomes  more  widely  recognized 
and  serves  as  an  incentive  to  good  work  in  other  schools. 
In  this  connection,  however,  a  word  of  warning  is  nec- 
essary.  No  encouragement  should  be  given  to  collecting 
merely  for  the  sake  of  collecting.    In  collecting  grasses, 
weeds,  minerals,  insects,  and  the  like,  there  should  be  a* 
definite  purpose.    Much  injury  has  been  caused  to  lo<aI 
flora  and  fauna  by  indiscriminate  collectors.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  less  common  a  plant  or  a  moth  or  a 
bird's  egg  is,  the  less  valuable  it  is  from  the  nature  study, 
as  distinguished  from  the  naturalist's,  point  of  view. 

THE   SCHOOL   OARDKN 

School  gardening  may  I>e  made  a  valuable  adjunct  to 
this  work.  The  garden  will  not  only  aid  the  nature  study, 
hut  by  its  means  definite  formal  instruction  in  agriculture 
may  be  given.  It  is  probable  that  the  development  of  the 
school  garden  will  afford  the  best  means  of  giving  agricul- 
tural training  in  the  elementarj-  school.  If  education  in 
agriculture  is  to  become  efficient,  a  place  must  be  provided 
for  its  practice.  As  a  schcml  subject,  gardening  possesses 
the  double  advantage  that  it  affords  exerci.se  in  the  use  of 
tools  as  well  us  a  means  of  instruction  in  nature  study  and 
elementary  agriculture. 

The  work  for  very  young  children  will  of  necessity  differ 
from  that  given  to  older  pupils.   It  is  not  always  essential 


fc 


AGRIClLxXTRE   IN   TIIE    RrR.VL   SriIOOi.       r.^ 

tl.nt  tI.oresho,.M  ho  pardon  plofs.   Aruoh  oan  J,o  ,l,>no  will, 
plants  .n  the  school  u-in.i„ws.  arran^o.I  in  ,,.,ts.  hoxo..  an.l 
l.a.sk,.ts     hoT  tho  junior  pupils,  panionin^  shonl.l  ho  ro- 
stncted  to  prow-in«  a  few  plants  on  small  plots,  one  or  two 
square  yards  in  size.    In  most  cases  tho  hea^y  work  will 
have  to  be  done  for  the  children.    It  is  not  until  eleven 
years  old.  at  least,  that  l>oys  as  a  rule  are  strong  enough  to 
use  ordinary  gardening  to<,Is.  In  some  cases  tho  c-ultivation 
of  a  common  plot  hy  all  the  boys  has  been  found  a.lvisahle 
1  his  encourages  cooperation  and  mutual  help.  In  this  case 
care  .s  needed  to  prevent  one  or  two  fH,ys  from  .loing'all 
he  work  wh.le  the  rest  look  on.    Educationally,  the  advan- 
tage hes  w-.th  the  individual  plots,  as  then  g<K>d  and  had 
work  can  be  seen  and  the  responsibility  therefor  fived    If 
the  g,rls  also  take  gardening,  their  plots  should  be  some- 
what smaller  than  those  given  to  the  boys,  and  particular 
at  ontion  should  be  paid  to  growing  flowers  with  a  view  to 
cult.vatmg  a  sense  of  the  beautiful,  as  well  as  to  the  use  of 
llowers  m  adding  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  home 

In  addition  to  teaching  the  proper  use  of  tools  and  the 
-study  of  plant  life,  gardening  should  also  he  used  as  an 
exorcise  in  practical  arithmetic.  The  pupils  should  keep 
strict  accounts  of  the  cost  of  seed,  fertilizers,  labor,  etc  so 
as  to  be  able  to  compute  profit  or  loss.  The  plots  should  bo 
measured  out  by  the  pupils,  and  the  plan,  proposed  for  cul- 
tivating each,  drawn  to  scale.  A  diary  should  he  kept,  and 
as  each  crop  is  harvested  a  complete  account  of  its  cultiva- 
tion should  be  written  as  an  e.vercise  in  composition 

Care  of  the  garden  during  the  summer  holUa,,.',.  -  In  some 
instances  the  gardens  have  been  allowed  to  In-come  an  evo- 
sore  during  the  summer  months  when  the  schools  are  not  in 
soss.on.  When  this  has  betm  done,  much  of  the  good  re- 
sulting from  the  instruction  has  been  lost  an.l  the  move- 
niont  has  received  a  setback.  By  a  little  foresight  arul 
organization  this  can  be  avoided.  When  tho  Maodonald 
-school  gardens  were  being  introduced  into  Curleton  County 


^*?a 


Mv^'  s-;.;-. 


-^;<> 


mmn 


74  AGUKTLTrRAL  EDICATION* 

Ontario,  the  traveling  instructor  usually  spent  an  hour  a 
week  (luring  vacation  at  eaeli  seliool  jjianlen.  Kaeli  pui)il 
liavin;,'  cl.ar^e  of  a  [ilot  was  expe<l«M|  to  meet  liini,  or,  in  the 
event  (if  alisenee,  was  held  responsihle  for  urrani^inj^  with 
.some  other  pupil  to  tidy  up  his  plot.  Some  schools  paid  the 
janitor  or  other  suitable  person  a  small  sum  for  looking 
after  the  general  condition  of  the  plots  and  walLs. 

In  connection  with  the  summer  vacati(m  problem,  it 
.should  he  noted  that  after  the  garden  has  heen  proi)erly 
rid  of  weeds  and  weed  seeds,  there  will  he  much  less  need 
for  weeding  after  June  ;}0.  In  some  rural  district.s  it  might 
l)e  an  advantage  to  .shorten  the  .summer  vacation  and 
lengthen  the  winter  one.  The  care  of  the  school  garden 
during  the  summer  presents  no  difficulty  that  cannot  l)e 
effectively  met  by  teachers  and  parents  in  cooperation. 

>^clu)ol  gardening  in  towns  and  cities.  —  School  gardening 
is  a  form  of  instruction  that  is  ju.st  as  ai)j)licable  to  the 
town  as  it  is  to  the  country.  In  some  cities  the  work  is  con- 
sidered im|)ortant  enough  to  warrant  the  aj)pointment  of 
special  supervisors.  In  Memphis,  Tennessee,  the  boys  are 
undo  the  instruction  of  a  sni)ervisor  from  one  and  a  half  to 
two  hours  each  week.  The  trustees  of  this  city  al:io  plan  to 
secure  the  use  of  a  school  farm  ol  twenty  or  more  acres, 
where  the  larger  boys,  who  are  not  otherwise  employed 
during  the  .summer  months,  may,  under  proper  direction, 
make  truck  gardening  profitable  and  educational. 

In  I^s  Angeles  more  than  sixty  school  gardens  are  in 
operation,  under  the  control  of  a  supervisor  and  five  assist- 
ants. An  attractive  feature  of  the  work  in  this  city  is  that 
many  of  these  gardens  are  vacant  lots  loaned  by  private 
citizens. 

In  (lev. land,  Ohio,  gardening  was  at  first  conducted 
jointly  by  the  Home  Gardening  A.ssociation  and  the  Hoard 
of  Education.  The  results  achieved  were  excellent.  "At 
present  the  children's  work  in  the  school  garden  is  volun- 
tary and  not  a  part  of  the  regular  curriculum,  though  it 


I 


AGRICrLTniE    IN  THE    RITIAL  SCHOOL        7; 

F)ormeatp.s  the  whole  (.(hirational  system.  .  .  Tho  Rini.-ri 
I..Ih-Is.  markers,  sticks,  ef,-..  are  made  in  the  n.anual  Irain- 
ir.^'  r.K„n;  the  dome.tie  science  (lasses  c.,.,k  or  can  the  ve^^,.. 
tal.les  the  puf.ils  have  raised;  flowers  an.J  vcKctahles  are 
used  for  drawing  and  painting;  cotton,  hemj,.  flax,  and 
.ro.„„  corn  are  raised  to  illastrate  geography  lessons;  and 
h<-  nature  study  and  language  lessons  have  Ix^en  vitali/e.l 
by  the  school  gardens."  ■ 

Mitmeapolis  and  I'hila.lelphiu  also  have  e.M.-nsive  sys- 
tems .,f  school  gardens.  One  of  the  results  of  the  work 
'"  t  'Hatter  city  is  that  ,„ore  than  eight  thou.sand  hon.e 
gard.-ns  have  l,et>n  planted  and  cultivated  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teachers. 


'I 


THE    HOMK    n.\RDE\ 

Wherever  possii.le.  home  gardens  should  he  ntilized  hoth 
lu  towns  and  rural  districts.    Those  scho,>ls  that  possess 
gardens  should  use  the  home  plot  as  an  adj.met  to  the 
school  ganlen.  and  thr.se  that  do  not  should  use  the  home 
I.  c.t  as  a  suhstitute.  Home  gardens,  under  the  supervision 
c.f  (lie  .school  authorities,  are  proposed  by  Dr.  Cla.xton  "-is 
a  sohition  of  .some  of  the  most  pressing  .scnial  and  eco'- 
iiomic  problems  in  city  and  suburban  life."  In  a  circul-ir 
recently  issued  by  the  Nat i.mal  Bureau  of  Kducation  ut 
Uashmgton,  it  is  suggested  that  many  of  the  vacant  town 
lots  could  be  converted  into  gardens  where  the  boys  an.l 
g.rls  could  raise  vegetables,  berries,  and  fruit  for  j.lcasure 
"iHl  profit.  These  should  be  under  the  direction  of  a  teacher 
cmph.yed  twelve  months  in  the  year.  He  wonl.l  be  engaged 
J»  t<;achmg  elementary  agricultural  scic.ce  in  school   an<l 
u.  .hrectmg  the  school-garden  work  after  school  hours   on 
Nilurdays,  and  during  the  summer  holidays 

Dr.  riaxton  says.  "Of  the  l.'3.()0().()00  between  the  ages  of 
SIX  and  twenty  in  the  cities,  towns,  manufacturing  villages. 


'■li-' 


m 


70 


AGUICrLTlRAL  EDICATION 


nnd  siihiirhan  roinmunities  of  tho  I'nitcd  States,  not  more 
than   fifteen   j)er  cent    are   away   from    home  diiriii;:   the 
suiiitiier  vacation  or  en;,'a<,'e(|  in  rej^'nlar  employment.   The 
remaining,'  ei^'hty-five   per  rent   remain  at   home  without 
any  useful,  henlljifnl,  product  ive  o((ii|)ation  re(|uirinfj  any 
lar^e  part  of  their  time.   On  the  other  hand,  there  is  much 
valuable  land  in  hack  yanis  and  vacant  lots  that  is  servinf» 
no  useful  purpose.   The  prohloni  is  to  hrin^  this  land  and 
these  children  to^'ether.  The  vef,'etal)les.  berries,  and  fruits 
^rown  could  be  used  as  food  for  the  children  and  their 
families,  and  the  surplus,  if  any.  should  be  marketed  to  the 
best  advantaf,'e.  Throuf,'!i  the  helj)  of  the  teachers  this  can 
be  done  in  a  ccniperative  way.   Ten  or  fifteen  cents  worth 
of  vef,'(>tal)les  each  day  from  the  f,'ardens  of  eac-h  of  two 
hundred  children  would  amount   to  i^-iO  or  $.'}().  ...  It  is 
difficult  to  estimate  the  results  of  this  plan,  when  it  shall 
be  in  operation  throuj,'hout  the  country.   For  the  children 
it  will  mean  health.  strenf,'th.  joy  in  work,  habits  of  indus- 
try, an  understan<lin;j;  of  the  value  of  money,  as  measured 
in  terms  of   labor,  and  such  knowled^'c  of   the  phenom- 
ena and  forces  of  nature  as  must  be  had  for  the  under- 
standiiif,'  of  most  of  their  school  lessons.    They  will  also 
learn  something,'  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  morality: 
that  each  individual    must  make   his  or  her  own  living, 
must  by  some  kind  of  labor,  of  head,  heart  or  hand,  con- 
tribute to  the  conunon  wealth  as  much  as  he  takes  from  it, 
must  pay  for  what  he  gets  in  some  kind  of  coin." 

now   TIME   MAY    BE   OBTAINED   FOR    NATUBE   STUDY    AND 
AGRIfULTrRE 

The  length  of  the  .school  day  is  at  present  five  or  five  and 
a  half  hours,  and  the  teacher  will  wonder  )<ow  this  work  is 
to  be  taken  without  detriment  to  the  other  subjects.  Hy 
careful  organization,  however,  it  can  be  successfully  man- 
aged. Agriculture  may  be  taken  once  or  twice  a  week  in 
place  of  other  subjects,  by  arranging  that  through  a  number 


I 


AGRICILTI-RE   IN   THE    RURAL  SCIIOJL       77 

..f  w(H>k.s  each  half  hour  in  the  day  Ik-  used  f„r  one  of  the 
exrrcises.  and  that  the  sul.ject.s  omitted  he  thus  spread  over 
the  whole  eurrieuhim.  %  a  proKram  of  this  eharaeter  no 
appreciable  loss  will  be  felt,  particularly  if  the  subjects  be 
well  correlated. 

The  teacher  should  not  consider  the  work  done  when  the 
period  called  for  by  the  school  time-table  has  been  em- 
J.loved.  If  the  work  has  Ixx-n  tau;,'ht  in  tlu>  ri-hl  spirit  it 
will  be  found  that  th<'  pupils  will  not  bo  confenl  with  this 
litnited  tune,  but  that  they  will  s,K-nd  nuich  of  their  recre- 
alio.i  tune  m  the  garden;  and  the  hel,,  and  a(h  ice  ..f  the 
teacher  shoul.l  be  available  at  all  times.  This  is  no  work 
for  the  teacher  who  measures  .service  by  the  cliK-k. 

This  work  may  be  pursued  to  a  great  extent,  bv  i)ro.rre.ss- 
iiig  from  the  elementary  nature  study  of  the  lower  gnide.s 
to  the  mtensive  agricultural  work  of  the  higher,  and  the 
teacher  who  approaches  it  from  the  right  angle  will  fi„d 
the  mtercst  growing  and  will  receive  the  help  of  all  in  the 
.hstrict  who  have  the  welfare  of  the  neighborhood  at  heart 
I  he  attitude  of  the  teacher  should  be  that  of  u  fol|„w 
learner  with  the  pupils.  V.lien  any  difficulty  of  a  technical 
character  arises,  he  should  make  use  of  the  knowledge  of 
l)ractical  farmers  in  the  district. 

IIIXDBAXCES   TO   THE   IXTKODUt  U,)X   OF   NATURE   STUDY 
AND    AGRICULTURE 

Every  new  subject  has  had  to  fight  its  way  for  recogni- 
tion among  school  studies,  and  the  battle  for  agriculture 
's  not  yel  won.  It  will  now  be  pertinent  to  consi.l.T  tli.- 
Miain  objections  that  have  been  urged  against  the  introduc- 
tion of  agriculture. 

The  nature  of  the  subject.  —  First  comes  the  general  ob- 
jection applied  to  every  new  subject  that  has  l)een  intro- 
duced during  the  past  twenty  years.  It  is  admitted  that 
t  H-  duty  of  the  State  to  train  its  boys  and  girls  is  unassail- 
able, but  It  IS  argued  that,  when  it  goes  beyond  this  and 


78 


AGRICLLTIUAL  EDICATION 


nssunirs  to  teach  tlifin  trarh-s  and  prnfcsMotis,  it  is  p>ing 
Ix-yoiid  its  fiiticliiin  and  is  iii\adiiii.'  flu-  realm  of  indis  idual 
ri^'litsand  res|)<)ii.«,il)ilitie.s.  'I'lie  field  of  State  eoiilrol  has 
lieeii  eotisideral)ly  extended  (if  late  years,  and  now  all  mat- 
ters that  eoneern  the  e(lu(alional,  social,  husiness,  and 
economic  life  of  the  individual  are  considered  to  come  fairly 
within  its  province.  However  ue  may  ditler  as  to  the  meth- 
ods hy  which  the  principle  is  to  he  applieil.  it  is  now  eon- 
ceded  that  it  is  the  function  of  the  State  to  train  il.s  hoys 
and  ),'irls  so  that  they  will  heconie  I'dicienf  social  and  eco- 
nomic units.  In  carrying  out  this  printii)le  tlie  claims  uf 
agriculture  cannot  he  neglected. 

The  oirrrrowdal  curriculum.  —  It  is  said  that  the  curric- 
ulum is  already  overcrowded,  and  this  is  fretpienlly  urged 
as  a  reason  why  agriculture  should  not  he  given  a  jjlaee. 
'i'o  make  room  for  agriculture  it  may  he  necessary  to  omit 
nmch  useless  or  less  inij)orfant  matter  from  the  suhjeets 
now  on  the  program.  In  deciding  what  shall  he  omitted, 
u  committee  of  the  National  Kducation  Association  sug- 
gests that  the  following  tests  he  applied:  Has  the  suhject 
value  as  usahle  knowledge  sufhcient  to  warrant  its  reten- 
tion!' Is  there  other  matter  of  greater  value  as  usahle 
knowledge,  not  now  taught,  hut  which  can  he  taught  if 
suhstituted  for  that  of  less  value.^  If  its  value  as  usahle 
knowledge  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  its  retention  on  that 
!..T()und,  has  it  a  value  for  training  which  will  justify  the 
exi)enditure  of  the  time  and  effort  essential  for  its  mastery? 
Is  tliere  other  matter  with  as  great  value  as  knowledge,  hut 
with  greater  value  for  training,  which  can  he  put  in  its 
place  and  for  which  there  is  no  time  unless  it  can  he  \m\  in 
that  place?  The  conunittee  l)elieves  that  there  is  no  justi- 
fication for  the  retention  of  any  matter  in  the  ccturse  of 
study,  whatever  he  its  knowledge  and  training  value,  if  its 
retention  |)revetits  the  introduction  of  other  material  hav- 
ing greater  value  in  holh  directions.  They  further  express 
the  helief  that  the  application  of  these  tests  would  result  in 


AGKiniTrRK   I\   THE    HIRAL   S(  II(M)I.        79 

Mich  a  reduction  of  siihjVct-tnattcr.  aii.l  such  an  un.l.-r- 
sfandinK  "f  thr  kiiowU-.l^,.  and  training'  vahu"  <.f  induslrial 
Mil.jVcfs.  as  wonM  ^;ivc  thctu  their  proper  place  in  the 
(  uiirse  of  .stu<ly  without  any  overcrowding;. 

Immaturit,,  nf  pupih.  —  It  is  arpu-d  that  th.-  pu,,ils  arc 
too  younK  and  inunature  to  appreciate  and  understand  tlie 
.Ic.nentary  facts  of  agriculture.    Tli.>  fact  that  the  pupils 
are  nnniature  is  the  ^'reater  reason  for  usiii^'  their  environ- 
ment as  an  instrument  in  their  education.    In  the  case  of 
rural  (hstricts.  that   environment   is  larj,'ely  a>,'rieultural, 
and  many  of  the  underlyinK  F)rinci|.K-s  of  a^'riciilfure  arc 
c.ipahle  of  explanation  not  too  dim,  lilt  for  the  child  to  com- 
i>rehend.    Examples  arc  to  he  found  throuK'hout  the  conn- 
try  of  even  kindergarten  children  taking'  j,'reat  interest  in 
Mmple  gardening.    Kven  if  the  facts  are  not  underst.Hxl  in 
I  heir  entirety,  they  arou.se  curiosity  and  interest  and  prc- 
|)arc  the  mind  for  further  in^■esti«ation  later  on.   The  im- 
maturity  argument  can  he  as  well  ai)plied  to  practically 
ev.-ry  subject  that  aj)|)<>ar   in  the  curnciilum.    This  argu- 
iiH-iit  is  valid  only  when  the  subject-matter  of  the  lessons 
Ki\  en  has  not  ht>en  sutJicienf  ly  considered  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  age  of  the  child.  A  lesson  on  the  maple  leaf  may 
he  given  with  ecjual  benefit  to  the  first-grade  |)upil  and  to 
flic  fifth-grade  ,)ui)il.  but  to  attempt  to  give  the  .same  lesson 
to  both  would  be  folly. 

The  employment  of  women  an  teachers.  —  Tht  fact  that 
the  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  are  mainly  women  is  al.so 
urged  as  a  reas,m  f.)r  omitting  agnculture.  This  argument 
•vould  probably  Ik-  better  state.l  by  saying  that  the  lai  k  of 
lra<hers  with  proper  training  makes  if  imp(.vsil)Ie  to  teach 
agriculture  ctfectively.  The  argument  is  not  so  much 
against  the  .sex  as  against  lack  of  training.  But,  if  this 
argument  is  to  be  admitted,  does  it  not  ay)ply  with  e<|nal 
< H'ccf  to  all  the  subjects  taught  in  the  rural  school:-  Dr. 
Draper  once  said:  ".Vnd  the  gods  of  the  (Irecks.  mean  and 
sonhd  as  they  were,  would  lan.iih  at  the  >;t>ort.acle  (J  ..;-I 


l.l-'l 


80 


A(.I{I(  ri/riHAI    KDI  (  ATION 


Iriichcrs  fraiiiiim  f.irriKTs'  hoys  old  ttioii>,'li  in  r«'<<'ivr  it  in 
flif  intricacies  of  n-al  ii^'riciillurc.  (M-rnTatioris  will  come 
iirni  ^;o  Inforr  llicrc  is  any  snl>statilial  rcsiilt  to  agriculture 
tlironuli  the  ^'irls  in  the  no,  nial  scIkmiIs."  ' 

'i'liis  aryunicnt  il<'|)«-ml>  almost  entirely  on  tli««  tncarn"nj? 
that  is  read  itito  the  word  ■"a^.Ticullure."  If  it  is  taken  to 
mean  the  art  of  practical  fanning;,  then  aKriculturo  cannot 
Ik-  laii^'ht  in  the  eleinei.tary  school,  nor.  iiidee<l.  in  any 
other  kind  o*"  school.  The  Icachal.K-  facts  of  a^'ricullure 
ar«-  many,  some  simple  and  easy  to  understand,  and  otliers 
rom|)lex  and  entirely  un.suitecl  to  elementary  .seh<K)l.s. 
This  heinK  true,  it  is  sinifdy  a  (piestion  of  selection  and 
treatment.  If  wouhj  be  extremely  al)surd.  of  course,  to 
arKUe  that  because  mathematics  is  sucli  a  hir^*'  sul)ject  we 
should  not  teach  any  of  it  in  elementary  schools;  yet  Ihi.s 
is  precisely  the  position  tliat  many  jhtsoiis  take  with  refer- 
ence to  the  teaching,'  of  agriculture. 

At  a  ("om'erence  on  Kducation  in  the  South,  held  at 
Little  Rock,  .\rkansas.  one  of  the  sjK-akers  said:  "Some 
three  years  a^ro  I  sent  a  <iuesliotmaire  to  twenty  or  thirty 
schools  in  seven  states.  My  replies  from  teachers  of  the 
j,'ra<ies  from  six  io  nine,  mostly  seven  and  ei^dit.  who  were 
teaching  VM  hoys  and  ;{!)(>  jjirls,  showed  twenty-two  M-hools 
which  foiuid  the  |)U|)ils  interested  in  the  study  of  agricul- 
ture. .None  of  them  were  uninterested.  In  eighteen  schools 
the  |)arents  favored  this  instruction,  in  two  t)pj>osition  was 
met.  These  teachers  were  mostly  women.  These  letters, 
as  well  as  my  own  oh.servation.  convince  me  that  the 
woman  teacher  can  teach  agriculture  succe.ssfully  if  she 
will  undertake  it.  She  can  teach  as  large  a  percentage  of  the 
teachalde  agriculture  as  .she  can  of  the  teachable  history  or 
geograi)liy  or  Knglish.  and  with  more  etfeelive  results.  She 
taniiot  make  a  farmer  of  an  eighth-grade  boy.  nor  can  she 
make  him  a  general  by  teaching  him  of  great  battles.  This 

'   Drii'.T.  Aii.lnw  S   Agrirultur,  , mil  its  Educational  Seeds.    Now  York 
Stall'  Eiiuculiun  Department.   .-Mbany. 


.UiUICrLTlUK    IN    TFIK    HI  HAL   SCIKKM- 


si 


is  not  tli«'  olijrcf.  hut  shr  ciui  tojuli  him  that  wliich  will 
trrid  to  makr  him  a  In-f  tcr  farmer,  ami  hiy  a  foiiiKlalinii  fur 
lii>  owti  fiirflicr  (h-vclopmrtit.  I  cdhIcikI  lh.it  any  ffnch.r 
ulio  (Mil  Irach  history,  jjrammar.  cir  hyKi«'iif  w»>ll  cati 
ttach  a^'riculturo  wril."' 

The  liriiilnl  titur  aidildhlr.  —  It  is  i-ontcruicd  Ity  same 
lli.it  all  the  availalili'  fiiiu-  is  n-cjiiirrd  f«ir  tlir  '■fiimiainrri- 
tiils."  What  are  fim<himt'ntal.s?  Tlu-  (Jay  wluii  t<lti<ati.>n 
cuuld  l)e  cfuifmi'd  to  reading,  writing',  and  arithtnrtic  has 
inii^;  sitHT  |)a.ss4'd.  If  it  had  not.  rv.-n  lh«-  so-called  fimda- 
iiKtifals  could  Iw  hotter  taii^^ht  hy  iisiiij,'  iiKri'iilfure  as  a 
iiMMiis  of  tcachiiif,'  them  to  the  coimtry  child.  It  i.s  said 
tliiit  the  hours  arc  too  short,  and  that  when  the  <'hild  can 
L'o  to  school  only  four  or  five  tnonths  in  the  year  there  in 

ill  lie  lime  in  the  fe\s  ycj.rs  that  he  has  in  scl I  for  the 

"tudy  of  even  necessary  suhj^-i-ts;  hut  whetlu-r  agriculture 
lie  taken  or  not,  thes<>  cttnditions  <-annot  Ik*  justified.  Tlie 
(|iiestion  of  time  is  determined  hy  the  short  length  of  the 
M  hool  term  permissihlc  in  many  states,  the  irrefjular  at- 
tendance, and  the  ahsence  and  non-enforcement  of  eoni- 
pulsory  att«  iidance  laws.  All  tliese  can  be  remedieu  if 
|)rof)er  steps  Im.'  taken. 

The  rtm.iprratism  of  school  officials.  —  The  intrr)duetion  of 
iiLTiculture  has  been  hindered  hy  the  conservatism  and  in- 
difr<Tence  of  school  officers  more  than  by  any  other  cause. 
This  is  true  not  only  of  Icxal  officials,  but  also  of  state  and 
county  oflicials.  Some  professors  of  aj,'ricultural  colle^^'cs 
have  in  the  past  opjHjsed  this  movement.  They  doubted 
the  wisdom  or  the  possibility  of  teaching  ajaieulture  in  the 
conmion  schools,  owin<;  to  the  absence  of  tcxtb<x)ks  or  for 
some  other  reason.  It  is  always  easy  to  ccmjure  up  difficul- 
ties, but  it  is  an  incontrovertible  fact  that,  in  those  states 
where  all  theoflBccrs  are  coiiperating  in  conducting  an  cn- 
eri^'efie  campaign  along  these  lines,  agriculture,  notwith- 

'  <niif.r<n.f  for  Education  in  the  South.    Proceedings  ut  Thirtiinth 
Anuual  CoiifLTcncc. 


82 


AGRICin^TURAL  EDUCATION 


standing  the  difficulties,  is  actually  l>oin«  taught  with  some 
considerable  measure  of  success;  and  teachers  who  feel  that 
they  are  uni)rei)are(l  are  taking  advantage  of  the  numerous 
and  readily  available  opportunities  now  offered  them  to 
qualify  for  this  work. 

BENEFITS  TO  UK  DERrVED  FROM  THE  TEArHINO  OF  \ATURE3 
STUDY    AND    AGHICLLTIRE 

Many  reasons  have  been  given  for  teaching  agriculture 
in  the  elementary  schools.  The  following,  adapted  from 
thecouiseof  study  for  the  State  of  Illinois,  include  the 
main  arguments:  — 

1.  To  cultivate  an  interest  in  country  life,  to  instill  a 
res|)oct  for  the  occupation  of  agriculture,  and  to  create  a 
due  regard  for  the  earth  and  its  products. 

2.  To  create  a  reganl  for  industry  in  general,  and  an 
appreciation  of  the  material  side  of  the  affairs  of  a  highly 
civilized  people. 

3.  To  cultivate  the  active  and  creative  instincts,  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  reflective  and  receptive  that  are  almost 
exclusively  used  in  our  .schools. 

4.  To  inculcate  courage  under  failure  and  moflesty 
under  success,  putting  to  the  test  early  in  life  the  ability  to 
do  a  definite  thing. 

5.  To  train  the  pupil  in  ways  and  tnethods  of  ac(iuiring 
mformation  for  himself,  and  incidentally  to  acquaint  him 
with  the  manner  in  which  information  has  been  originally 
acquired  and  the  world's  stock  of  knowledge  has  been 
accumulated. 

0.  To  connect  the  .sch<M)l  with  real  life,  and  to  make  the 
value  and  need  of  school  more  apparent. 

7.  As  an  avenue  of  communicaticm  between  the  pupil 
and  the  teacher,  it  being  a  field  in  which  the  pupil  will  likely 
have  a  larger  fund  of  information  than  the  teacher,  but  in 
whirh  the  training  of  the  teacher  can  help  to  more  exact 
kmnvledge. 


AGRICLT.TURE   IN  THE   RUR.VL  SCHOOL       83 


SniOOL  AGRICCLTIUE  AS   A    MEAXS  OF    KEEPING   THE   BOY 
O.N    THE   KAUM 

One  of  the  reasons  generally  given  for  teaching  agricnl- 
t'.ire  in  the  elementary  school  is  that  it  will  tend  to  keep  the 
l.oy  on  the  farm.    What  right  have  we  to  keep  the  boy  on 
tin-  farm?  There  is  no  more  reason  for  telling  the  son  of  the 
farmer  that  he  must  follow  in  his  father's  footstejjs  than 
there  is  for  telling  the  son  of  the  blacksmith  or  the  carpenter 
that  he  must  adopt  his  father's  trade.    All  that  we  have  a 
right  to  do  is  so  to  train  the  boy,  by  the  use  of  the  things 
that  lie  around  him,  that  he  will  be  able  to  make  an  intelli- 
gent choice  uninfluenced  by  extraneous  considerations  and 
ephemeral  attractions.    It  is  to  be  hoped  that  many  city 
Ixiys  will  go  to  the  country,  and  it  is  certain  that  many 
(■(.uiitry  boys  will  still  go  to  the  city;  therefore  the  educa- 
tion in  the  elementary  grades  will  have  to  be  suited  to 
both  classes. 

Perhaps  the  most  vital  reason  for  using  agriculture  in  the 
education  of  the  country  child  is  that  it  is  in  strict  accord- 
ance with  that  recognized  i)rinciple  of  educational  psy- 
chology which  demands  that  education  should  be  built 
ii|)on  past  exi)erience.  If  this  be  accepted,  the  daily  experi- 
ence of  the  farmyard  and  the  farm  home  will  furnish  the 
groundwork  of  the  teaching  in  the  rural  school;  it  will  \ie 
tlic  common  stock  from  which  other  subjects  grow;  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  grow  will  be  limited  only  by  the  age 
and  capacity  of  the  pupil  and  the  interest  and  enthusiasm 
of  the  teacher. 


1  , 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   CONSOLIDATION   OF   SCIIOOUt 

For  much  of  tlic  country  the  consolidated  rural  school 
ofrers  the  hcst  solution  of  Ih-j  problems  of  agricultural  ed- 
ucation. The  (Mmsolidated  school  affords,  also,  the  basic 
elements  for  a  complete  social  and  educational  reorgani- 
zation of  country  life. 

The  term  "consolidated  school"  has  hardly  yet  been 
satisfactorily  defined.  The  grouping  of  two  or  three  schools 
might  be  called  consolidation,  but  the  tendency  now  is  to 
regard  the  ideal  consolidated  sdiool  as  having  not  less  thaa 
frnir  teachers,  servii ,;  an  area  of  twenty  to  thirty  square 
miles,  unless  the  pojMilat.oii  l,e  very  dense,  and  offering 
faciUties  for  transporting  the  pupils  to  and  from  school. 

THE   INCEITIOX   OF   THE   CO.V.SOLIDATION    IDEA 

The  first  consolidated  school  in  the  United  States  was 
organized  in  the  State  of  Massachijsetts.  In  18G!),  the 
legislature  of  that  state  authorized  any  town  to  raise 
money  by  taxes  in  order  to  provide  for  the  conveyance  of 
pu{)ils  to  and  from  school.  At  first  pupils  were  transj)orted 
to  the  high  school.  Afterwards  many  district  schools  in 
sparsely  settled  places  were  closed,  and  the  pupils  were 
conveyed  to  the  school  in  the  nearest  town  or  village. 
Later,  the  money  so  i)rovided  was  used  to  convey  pupils  to 
the  consolidated  school.  The  first  actual  case  of  consolida- 
tion was  effected  at  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  in  1874.' 

For  the  first  twenty  years  after  the  inception  of  the  idea, 
the  growth  of  the  movement  was  very  slow.  This  was  due 
to  many  causes,  but  chiefly  to  the  apathy  of  school  offir  ais 

'  CoiisoliiliUion  of  Rural  Schools.  L'niled  States  Bureau  of  Education. 
Bulli'liu  30.    \'JH. 


1 1 

H 


!  I 


d   .    y.   ■t'  1 


THE   CONSOLIDATION  OF   SCHOOLS 


8.J 


^ 


i 


i 


iind  the  conservatism  of  the  people.  It  is  always  difficult 
to  make  changes  of  any  kind  in  rural  districts,  and  changes 
i'l  educational  organization  are  the  most  difficult  of  all 
to  bring  about.  The  rural  population  needs  leaders,  and 
Hiose  who  should  have  been  the  leaders  had  not  yi  I  recog- 
nized the  importance  of  the  movement. 

Another  hindrance  to  the  acceptance  of  consolidation 
lias  been  the  fact  that,  under  the  present  state  of  the  law, 
the  people  themselves  must  vote  o!i  its  adoption.  The  vot- 
ers in  the  districts  where  consolidation  is  n..>st  needed  are 
often  loath  to  change,  unprogressive  in  educational  affairs, 
jealous  of  'hose  'iving  in  other  districts,  and  lacking  a  proper 
conception  of  the  importance  of  the  best  educational  facili- 
ties. 

"  Progress  by  consent  of  the  voters  is  a  slow  and  arduous 
undertaking.  Matters  involving  the  fate  of  nations  are 
often  settled  more  easily  than  are  proposals  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  rural  schools." ^  This  attitude  still  exists,  but 
fortunately  conditions  are  being  rapidly  improved,  and  the 
many  examples  of  successful  consolidation  are  changing 
the  attitude  of  both  the  school  officials  and  the  rural  voter. 


THE    PRESENT  STATUS   OF   THE   CONSOLIDATION   MOVEMENT 

In  the  United  States.  —  There  are  now  more  than  15,0()0 
consolidated  schools  in  the  United  States.  The  movement 
has  probably  made  the  greatest  progress  in  the  State  of 
Indiana,  due  largely  to  the  far-sightedness  of  the  educa- 
tional leaders  in  that  state  in  securing  th.  necessary  legisla- 
tion. The  management  of  the  schools  in  Indiana  is  in  the 
liimds  of  one  man,  who  is  elected  by  the  jK-ople,  usually 
without  reference  to  his  political  affiliations.  He  employs 
teachers,  buys  supplies,  and  directs  the  construction  and 
iinjmnement  of  buildings.  He  may  legally  close  any  school 
having  an  attendance  of  fifteen  or  fewer,  and  nmst  abandon 

'  (oiix.li.latf,!  Rural  Stiiools.    L'nitcd  States  Department  of  Xgrkul- 
tun-.   ItulU'tm  i3i. 


m 


8(5 


AGRICULTUR.VL  EDICATIOX 


and  consolidate  all  .s<-hools  liaviiig  an  average  daily  at- 
teiidatKi-  of  twelve  or  fewer. 

Consolidation  has  led  to  the  organization  of  the  rural 
high  sehool.  In  i)ractically  every  state  in  the  Union  con- 
solidation has  proved  a  success,  and  the  question  of  its 
general  adoption  is  scarcely  any  longer  deliatable.' 

In  Ca inula.  —  In  Canada,  the  movement  has  not  made 
great  i)rogress.  The  Province  of  New  Hruiiswick  has  four 
consolidated  sch(M)Is.  In  l!)Oi,  a  ty|K'  school  was  built 
under  the  Macdonald  Fund.  Seven  districts  were  united; 
1 1  ley  were  sparsely  settled  and  had  only  one  hundred  and 
thirty  pupils.  The  country  was  hilly,  the  people  poor,  and 
the  distances  long.  The  Macdonald  Fund  paid  the  exi)ense 
l)eyf)nd  what  it  had  cost  the  school  sections  for  their  sepa- 
rate schools.  After  three  years'  experience  the  people  con- 
cluded that  they  could  not  hear  the  cxikmisc  of  such  a 
school  alone,  .so  arrangements  were  made  to  continue  the 
assistance  for  three  years  longer.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth 
year  the  building  was  burned,  but  in  sjjite  of  the  additional 
heavy  cost  of  rebuilding,  the  people  declined  to  abandon 
the  consolidated  .system  and  voted  to  rebuild  and  continue 
the  school. 

Con.solidation  WcOs  begun  in  one  district  in  Ontario  in 
19();j,  but  the  career  of  the  school  has  not  been  fortunate. 
The  fifteen  trustets  of  the  five  sections  united  formed  the 
con.solidated  .school  board.  The  sections  were  to  maintain 
their  separate  identity  and  retain  their  old  premises  in  ca.se 
they  should  wish  to  return  to  the  individual  .school  .system. 
The  law  did  not  provide  for  a  joint  annual  meeting,  and 
local  differences  and  jealousies  arose  from  this.  After  the 
expiration  of  the  three  years  assigned  for  the  experiment, 
three  and  a  half  .sections  withdrew,  not,  it  is  .said,  because 
they  did  not  ai)preciate  the  value  of  the  school,  but  because 
it  was  unfavorably  situated  and  the  cost  of  transportation 

'  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools.   Unikd  Stat-j^  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin  30.    11)14. 


[Si 


. 


11 


tup:  consolidation  of  s(  hools         st 

excessiv<».  Some  of  the  fhildrcn  had  to  In-  tr;uis|M>rf»'(l 
across  a  rity  of  Ki.OOO  |k'oi>I«'.  Wlicn  llu'  vt»to  lo  il«vi<le 
the  fate  of  llu-  school  was  lukfii,  rvery  ral«'|)uyt'r,  witli  one 
exception,  who  had  children  atteiulin>{  the  s<li()ol  voted 
for  its  continuance  at  the  additional  exjx'nse,  hut  an  ad- 
verse vote  was  given  by  those  ratepayers  who  had  no 
children  attcndiuf^. 

The  school  was  placed  in  close  proximity  to  the  Ontario 
Af,Ticultiiral  College  so  that  it  might  Ik-  seen  l)y  the  farmers 
who,  in  large  immhers,  annually  visit  the  college.  This  lo- 
cation, because  it  was  not  the  true  center  of  the  s<-hool3 
consolidated,  had  much  to  do  with  the  failure  of  the  ex- 
periment. In  .spite  of  all  this  the  .scIkk)!  Ihls  proved  it.self 
desiral)le.  It  is  being  contimied  as  a  two-M-hool  coiLsolida- 
tion,  the  pupils  from  one  se<ti(m  being  brought  in  on  the 
electric  railway.  This  whole  exj)erinient  has  been  un- 
fortunate, which  is  nuich  to  Ix"  regretted,  since,  according 
to  Mr.  A.  ('.  Monahan,  of  the  I'nited  States  Bureau  of 
Kducution,  Canada,  owing  to  its  »'xcelleiit  system  of  sujH'r- 
\ision  and  government  support  for  .schools,  is  in  a  much 
better  position  to  undcrUike  consolidation  than  is  the 
Ihited  States. 

NOTABLE    EXAMPLE.S   OF   CONSOLIDATION 

The  John  Swanei/  Consolidated  School.^  —  Probably  one 
of  the  l)est  examples  of  consolidation  is  the  John  Swaney 
Consolidated  School  of  Putnam  County,  Illinois.  This 
sch(K)l  "is  one  of  the  l^est  examples  of  public  sentiment, 
private  liberality,  and  wise  organization  combined,  that 
is  to  be  found  in  any  con.solidated  district  in  the  I'nited 
Slates." 2  As  a  concrete  example  of  the  purpose  and  po.s- 
sibilities  of  such  schools,  it  will  repay  careful  consideration. 

The  school  is  situated  in  the  open  country,     mile  and  a 

'   Industrial  Education  in  Rural  Schools.    Committee  of  the  National 

Kdun'tion  .Vs-sooiation.    Prnrerdiniju.  1!K)<). 

-  fiirnfy,  Muhvi.   Country  Life  und  thi-  Country  School. 


8fl 


AGRKTLTrRAI,  EDICATIOV 


l.alf  fn.m  the  noarrst  villu^'c  and  ten  rnilt-s  from  a  stnall 
town.     The    (oniiuniiity    |h).sm..>m-.s    ..tie    „f    tht-    earlit-st 
"Kraii-os."    and    th<>    initiation   .,f   the   cainpaiKn   which 
finally  led  to  the  i'stahlishment  of  the  s<-h(K)l  was  due  to  this 
or^'unization.   The  a^'itation  for  c.n.sonchition  l)eKan  in  the 
•spruiK'  of  190.-,.    N<,1  ail  the  voters  ir.  the  co.nnninitv  were 
mernlMTs  ..f  the  KratiKe;  some  were  foreigners  who  of^'eeted 
to  any  increase  in  the  taxes,  and  some  were  al)sent(v  land- 
owners who  ohject.'d  still  more  slron^-ly.   At  first,  live  dis- 
tricts were  considered  as  suitahle  for  eons<>li,lali(.n.  I,nt 
owing  to  local  jealousies  it  was  impossible  to  decide  on  a 
I(K-ation  for  a  scho<,l  that  would  l>e  satisfactory  to  all;  and 
notwithstanding  many  meetings  »o  settle  the  prohlem.  the 
attempt  failed. 

The  ne.xt  attempt  considered  only  three  of  the  five  dis- 
tricts that  entered  into  the  first  plan.   Petitions  were  circu- 
lated.  On  their  return  it  was  found  that  the  promoters  of 
the  movement  had  a  clear  majority  of  the  legal  voters  of 
eaeh  district  concerned.    These  ,M>titions  were   then   ,,re- 
sented,  as  re(,uired  by  law,  to  the  township  trustees,  who 
were  enjoined  to  grant  the  request  of  the  petitioners.    But 
fooling  ran  .so  high  that  they  refused  to  do  this.    The  ne.xt 
step  was  to  carry  the  petition  to  the  county  superintendent, 
and  he,  in  spite  of  great  pressure  to  the  contrary  and  at 
considerable  danger  to  his  political  pros,K.cts,  reversed  the 
decision  of  the  trustees.   One  year  later  the  building  was 
dedicated. 

This  conflict  l)etween  the  districts  was  exceedingly  un- 
fortunate, as  It  led  to  considerable  economic  waste.  The 
building  IS  situated  near  the  geographic  center  of  the  town- 
ship,  but  serves  less  than  one  half  the  population.  The  area 
of  the  district  served  is  only  fourtetn  and  one  eighth  square 
miles,  and  the  benefits  of  the  school  are  too  great  to  be  re- 
stricted  to  so  limited  an  area. 

The  community  is  not  wealthy,  but  generous  donations 
amountmg  to  about  $i'000  were  made.   The  building  was 


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liiv^-l 


TFIK    COXSOMDATIOX   Ol'   S('H(>f>I,s  sf) 

oriirinully  plarirml  in  cost  alx.iil  Ji<l'2.(HM>.  hut  with  Iho 
.(juipriual  (h.cosf  n-mli.d  )t(|.-,,(M)0.  It  i>of  l.ri.k  (•..n.>lru<- 
liou  uikI  tonlains  f(.ur  k'.hhI  Mhcolr.M.m.-  two  lahnralorKs. 
a  liFirarj',  officrs.  a  luaniial-tramiii^,'  r<M)rii.  a  doiiu'stic 
wioiuf  kit<-lu'ii.  a  l.a.s<-nH'rit  ■  laynn)!!.,  a  fiirnac«'-r.K.tn. 
(loakrooms,  iiul<M)r  J.,il»-I.s.  aixi  a  lar^f  asMMiil.ly-r.HHii.  It 
has  its  own  watrr  systctn  and  h^htin^'  plant.  Thr  mIi<m)| 
IS  in>h-ht«'(i  to  .iohti  Swancy,  otu-  of  th«'  most  pro.s|M.rous 
farmers  of  the  district,  for  a  jjift  of  twcnty-foiir  ■•cr.s  of 
In-anlifully  wcKwh-d  Ian<l  for  a  campus.  In  this  natural  park 
there  arc  over  .'JOO  U-auliful  trees,  and  throuKh  it  winds  a 
stream. 

A  seh(H)l  of  this  tyjH-.  which  mtvcs  a  hirjje  area.  ne<-essi- 
tat<-s  trans|K)rtation.  r.nd  many  were  the  proph.-ci«-s  oi* 
failure  on  this  ac<-ount.  The  lii^'hways  of  the  district  are 
comm<m  earth  roads  and  fransportalion.  it  was  said,  could 
iK'vei-  \m  aei.-omplished  successfully.  The  s<h<H)l  in  actual 
oiMTation  has  proved  the  eonfrar\'.  Two  wagons  sinnially 
made  for  the  purjiose  are  used.  In  winter  I  hey  are  (om- 
forlahly  heated  The  drivinj,'  contract  amounts  to  $K)  a 
month  for  each  wa^'on.  They  have  been  running  since 
Se[)temher,  19(M}.  without  interruption. 

One  of  the  features  which  :n..rks  this  scIum)!  as  a  leader, 
even  among con.solidated.s<^-hfK.ls.  is  "Clear  Creek  Cotf  age,"' 
the  home  liiat  wa.s  crcidcd  (^^^  the  tea«he-  .  One  of  the 
abandoned  seh(^>i  buildings  about  forty  rods  from  the  new 
school  was  in  very  gcK)d  con.htion.  It  was  remodeled  into 
a  seven-room  eotUige,  a  housekeei)er  emjjloyed.  arnl  the 
problem  of  Jniarding  and  Icxlging  the  five  teachers  solved. 
The  janitor  is  employed  for  the  entire  year  and  is  provide<I 
with  a  cottage  in  another  part  of  the  campus. 

The  staff  consists  of  a  prinei[)al,  who  is  a  college  gra<hiate 
and  a  practical  farmer,  and  four  teachers.  Agriculture  and 
domestic  .science  arc  taught  throughout  the  course  oi  study, 
and  are  stresse.l  in  the  higher  grades.  Six  acres  of  land  are 
u.sed  by  the  high  sc-hool  as  an  experimental  plot,  and  the 


i?i 


90 


AGHKILTIRAL   EDL'CATIOX 


fliildrtMi  of  the  lower  fjrados  have  a  school  fiarden  ovory 
year.  SovviiiL;,  iiiamial  (raining',  nature  study,  uiusic, 
drauiii^'.  and  physical  traitiiii^'  arc  also  included  in  the 
course  of  study.  The  hi^di  school  is  approved  hy  the  State 
I  n  versity.  and  a  largo  percentage  of  the  graduates  enter 
the  College  of  Agriculture.  The  closest  cooperation  is 
maintained  with  the  home:;  throughout  the  community; 
two  leading  farmers  give  instru<-tion  in  corn-judging,  and 
horses,  cattle,  and  slieej)  are  frecjucntly  brought  from  the 
lionu's  of  the  i)ui)ils  for  class  study. 

The  s<.-hool  also  pnys  i)arlicular  attention  to  the  social 
activities  of  the  comnmnity.  Two  literary  societies,  which 
include  all  the  pupils,  are  in  o|)cration,  meeting  twice  a 
month.  Two  or  more  good  jjlays  are  given  each  year. 
A.lcfiuate  attention  is  i)aid  to  music  and  athletics.  Con- 
ferences of  i)arents  and  connnunity  gatherings  of  every 
description  are  held  in  the  assemhly  hall,  and  an  annual 
lecture  course  of  the  highest  grade  is  given.  It  is  said  that 
"there  is  no  farm  i)roI)lem,  and  no  moving  to  town  here." 
Apart  fr(;m  the  donations  of  Mr.  Swaney,  nothing  has  been 
done  in  this  district  that  could  not  he  done  in  any  commu- 
nity that  resolutely  sets  itself  to  face  the  prohlen).  Millions 
of  dollars  are  donated  every  year  for  education  and  other 
purpo.ses,  and  here  is  an  opportunity  for  some  philan- 
thropic i,erson  of  means  to  render  a  .service  to  the  nation 
which  will  bring  large  results. 

T/ic  Muif.s  Lick  .Sc//(«>/.'  -The  con.solidated  school  at 
Mays  Lick.  Mason  County,  Kentucky,  affords  a  remark- 
id)le  example  in  overcoming  ditficulties  that  appeared  to  be 
almost  insujM'rable.  After  .several  fruitless  meetings  to 
choose  a  site  for  a  high  school,  the  Mays  Lick  people  se- 
cured the  school  by  agreeing  to  vote  each  year  for  five 
years  a  local  tax  of  $1000.  Fifty  substantial  men  signed  a 
contract  that,  if  in  any  year  the  tax  should  not  be  voted. 

1  (  oiiMili,!;!!;,,!!  „f  Huriil  .Sohixils.    I'niti'd  States  Biiroau  of  Education 


THE   COXSOLIDATIOX   OF   S('II(K)LS 


01 


tlicy  as  individuals  would  pay  the  thousand  dollars.  An 
oj)lion  was  secured  on  ten  acres  of  land,  and  huildiiij^  plans 
were  drawn  and  contracts  called  for.  When  the  contracts 
were  ready  to  be  signed,  it  was  found  that  there  was  no 
money  to  huild  and  the  law  prohihited  the  creation  of  a 
(ji'ht  that  could  not  he  paid  from  that  year's  revenue.  To 
overcome  this  difficulty  the  "Mays  Lick  Improvement 
Company"  was  or>,'anized.  Fifty  shares  at  siOO  each  were 
l>oui,'ht  hy  members  of  the  community,  and  S'2(»,0()0  was 
borrowed.  The  company  agreed  to  erect  on  the  ten  acres 
already  chosen  a  building  according  to  plans  and  specifica- 
tions furnished  by  the  board  of  education.  The  board 
agreed  to  pay  the  comi)any  a  rent  of  AtH){)l)  annually  in  ad- 
dition  to  the  $1000  paid  by  the  district,  until  the  com- 
pany had  received  all  tlie  money  expended  with  six  per 
cent  interest,  on  condition  that  the  proj)crty  should  then 
be  deeded  to  the  county. 

The  complete  building  cost  about  $;}-2,0(M),  and  seven 
districts  were  consolidated.  An  injunction  was  taken  out  to 
prevent  the  taxes  from  being  usetl  to  pay  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  pupils,  and  a  s|K"cial  act  of  the  legislature  was 
necessary  to  legalize  contracts  entered  into  on  this  account. 
In  addition  to  the  money  raised  by  taxes,  much  was  se- 
cured by  private  subscription  and  community  effort  — ^and 
Mays  Lick  is  not  a  wealthy  district,  as  may  l)e  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  fifty-six  {K>r  cent  of  the  children  live  in 
rented  homes.  The  groands  were  sodded  by  the  boys  and 
the  farmers  of  the  district,  a  job  that  would  have  cost  ^-i^O 
if  done  by  contract.  All  things  considered,  the  exiM^ience 
of  this  district  affords  one  of  the  l>est  examples  of  hard 
work  which  resulted  in  the  development  of  a  proper  com- 
munity spirit,  and  which  was  crowiied  with  complete 
success. 

These  two  examples  are  the  practical  evidence  of  what 
•  an  he  accomplished  in  consolidation  when  purpose, 
intelligence,  and  initiative  combine. 


l 

\u 

J 

92 


ACRICrLTlRAL   EDK'ATION 


THE    KXPKNSE    AM)    THE    KKKICIENCY    OF    THE 
CONSOLIDATED    SCHOOL 

One  of  the  earliest  arguments  in  favor  of  consolidation 
was  its  greater  economy  as  compared  with  the  old  district 
system.  However,  in  the  gross  amount  of  money  expended, 
consolidation  as  a  rule  costs  more,  and  this  fact  should  he 
sciuarely  faced.  It  has  been  jjroved  beyond  contradiction, 
lunvever,  that  the  cost  per  pupil  per  month  at  the  small 
sc.ool  before  con.soIidation  was  greater  than  the  corre- 
sjxinding  cost  after  the  consolidation.  That  method  which 
is  the  most  successful  in  getting  the  largest  number  of 
children  into  a  good  school  for  the  greatest  number  of  days 
is  in  the  last  analysis  the  cheapest. 

The  farmer  should  not  be  told  that  consolidation  costs 
less,  but  that  he  is  getting  better  value  for  the  money  he  is 
spending.  lie  must  be  taught  to  apply  to  his  expenditure 
for  education  the  principles  he  applies  when  he  is  purchas- 
ing a  binder,  a  j)low,  or  any  other  piece  of  farm  machinery'. 
If  by  the  expenditure  of  a  few  tlollars  extra  he  can  get  a 
nmch  better  article,  it  is  economy  as  a  rule  to  purchase  the 
article  costing  the  larger  sum. 

It  is  also  argued  that  tl  consolidated  school  is  more 
eflicient  in  securing  educational  results.  The  argument  is 
perfectly  true  from  the  educationist's  jwint  of  view,  but  it 
is  very  doubtful  if  it  is  true  from  the  standjioint  of  the 
average  farmer  Usually  the  only  way  the  farmer  judges 
efficiency  is  by  visible  results,  and  in  education  this  some- 
tunes  means  to  him  results  as  showTi  by  examination.  In 
1911,  John  Franklin  Bobbit,  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
made  a  statistical  study  of  the  relative  efficiency  of  the 
consolidated  and  the  one-room  ungraded  school.  From  the 
office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  Delaware 
County,  Indiana,  he  secured  attendance  statistics  from  six 
graded  consolidated  schools  with  four  t<»  eight  teachers, 
and  from  thirty-four  one-teacher  rural  schools  taken  at 


THE   CONSOLIDATION   OF  SCHOOLS 


03 


niiidoni  throughout  the  county  and  having  an  aggregate 
attendance  about  ecjual  to  that  of  (he  six  consolidated 
schools.  AM  the  figures  were  reduced  to  the  hasis  of  one 
hundred  ai;  forty  (hiys  jwr  year.  Tlie  average  nuniher  of 
days  attended  hy  tlie  pupils  in  the  consohchited  schools  was 
111.1,  and  in  the  ungraded  schools  107.1.  In  the  consoii- 
dated  scliools  the  jjupiis  attended  79.4  per  cent  of  the  time. 

It  was  found  that  in  the  first  five  grades  the  attendance 
was  not  appreciably  different  in  the  two  classes  of  school.s, 
but  beyond  these  grades  the  attendance  was  from  eight  to 
twelve  per  cent  better  in  the  consolidated  that  in  the  un- 
graded school.  No  figures  were  available  to  show  that  the 
consolidated  school  held  a  greater  proportion  of  its  pupiL-J 
during  the  seventh  and  eight  yt-ars,  but  it  is  altwg«'ther 
likely  that  this  is  the  case.  If  (he  consolidated  .school  can 
secure  a  larger  number  of  pupils  during  the  seventh  and 
eighth  years,  when  serious  education  for  livelihood  may 
be  l)egun,  then  the  establishment  of  consolidated  schools 
is  fully  justified.  In  addition  to  this,  a  better  course  is 
provided  for  the  high  school,  which  can  continue  the  voca- 
tional training. 

On  the  .scholarship  side,  the  records  of  the  superintend- 
ent's office  contained  the  results  of  the  final  examination 
given  at  the  close  of  the  elenientarj'-school  course.  The 
questions  and  grading  were  uniform  for  the  whole  county, 
so  that  the  results  may  be  fairly  compared.  If  any  pui)il 
had  failed  in  arithmetic,  the  remaining  papers  of  that 
pupil  were  not  ex.- mined,  so  that  complete  results  could 
l)e  obtained  for  that  subject  only.  The  consolidated 
.school  {)upils  averaged  77.7  per  cent,  the  ungraded  pupils 
70.7  per  cent.  In  the  consolidated  schools,  61  pupils  wrote 
on  the  examination  and  73.8  per  cent  pa.s.sed.  In  the  un- 
graded schools,  71  per  cent  of  the  pupils  took  the  examina- 
tion and  73.2  per  cent  passed.  If  education  consists  in  the 
ability  to  pass  examinations,  then  the  education  given  in 
the  consolidated  school  does  not,  according  to  the  above 


1 

,  ^^^ 

...- 

_^ 

94 


AG RIC ULT LRAL  EDUCATION' 


fipuros,  appear  to  ho  ai)pro(ial)ly  l)cttcr  than  that  given  in 
the  un^'raded  school. 

This  iiH'thod  of  measuring:  eciiicutional  results,  l>  iT, 

leaves  tntircly  out  of  eousideralion  a  nuinlKT  of  ■  iilial 
factors  which  arc  the  basic  roasons  for  consolidation.  Thc^e 
are  factors  wliich  caiuiot  he  shown  l)y  percenta^'cs.  The 
efl'ective  teachinj^  of  agriculture  l»y  a  man,  and  of  domestic 
science  by  a  woman,  the  greater  number  of  pupils  usually 
retained  through  the  .seventh  and  eight  grades,  the  larger 
number  directed  to  the  high  school,  in  which  definite  voca- 
tional training  in  agriculture  .^nd  domestic  science  may  be 
given,  the  improved  health  conditions  due  to  Ix'tter  san- 
itati(m,  are  all  within  the  possil)ilities  of  a  well-organized 
consolidated  school,  and  some  of  these  factors  cannot  be 
fully  measured  in  percentages. 

It  is  i)ossil)le  in  the  con.solidated  school  to  give  much 
greater  attention  to  the  economic  aspects  of  the  subjects  of 
instruction  than  can  Ix^  done  in  the  ungraded  school.  The 
State  Suj)erintendent  of  Schools  of  Virginia  .says:  "Unless 
the  consolidated  school  tends  to  make  the  economic  life  of 
the  community  profitable,  while  it  is  raising  the  moral  and 
intellectual  life,  it  is  failing  to  fulfil  one  of  its  chief  mi.ssions. 
Country  life  must  be  made  economically  jjrofitable,  else 
the  country  districts  will  be  depopulated.  It  is  as  much  the 
«luty  of  the  education  department  of  the  state  as  it  is  of  the 
agricultural  department  of  the  .state,  to  help  to  make  it  so; 
and  the  consolidated  school  is  the  best  center  from  which 
to  accomplish  this  vital  work.  But  to  make  country  life 
economically  profitable,  and  yet  to  permit  it  to  remain  so- 
cially unattractive,  will  not  stop  the  moven'.ent  from  the 
country  to  the  city." 


SOME  OF  THE   DIFFirrLTIE:^   IN   THE  W.\Y 
Thr  rnndition  of  tlir  rnadi.  —  Consolidation  involves  the 
transportation  of  pupils,  and  one  of  the  main  objections  is 
that  the  condition  of  the  roads  often  renders  transports- 


*n 


!  .  t! 


t 

:;   , 

i't4 


THE   CONSOLIDATION   OF   SCHOOLS  or, 

tion  difKcult.  if  not  in.ix.ssihlo.    While  frans,M.rtalion  is 
inack'  easier  by  px.d  roads,  it   does  not  deiH-.id  on  flie.n. 
Even  in  .Massachusetts,  where  j^'ood  roads  ahoiiii.l,  a  Iar«e 
nuniJ)er  of  <  liildren  are  hauled  lo  eotisolidaf.'d  schools  <!aily 
over  mud  roads.   In  Indiana  prohahly  one  third  of  (hehaui- 
in-,' is  over  dirt   roads.    In  norfheaslern  Oiiio, -.vhen-  c.,n- 
■soiidation  is  cjinnion.  nearly  all  the  roads  are  dirt  n.ads. 
In  northwestern  Ohio,  where  there  are  excvllent  inacadain 
roads,  con.solidation  has  made  little  {jrogress.   In  Kentucky, 
which  ha.s  ten  thousand  miles  of  .solid  uiacadauiized  roads' 
con.solidation  has  not  been  extensively  ach.pted.    All  the 
above  facts  tend  to  prove  that  the  roads  or  n.ad  conditions 
netHl  play  only  a  minor  part  in  the  consideration  of  tlie 
(|uestion,  and  that  they  need  form  no  greater  :)arrier  to 
consolidation  than  they  do  to  social  intercourse  and  the 
liauliiii,'  of  farm  jjroduce. 

The  grcntrr  n>,i  »f  cnr,snli,l(U}im.  —  The  second  ol)jection 
generally  urged  is  that  consolidation  will  cost  more.   So  it 
should:  a  better  article  is  being  delivered,  and  the  jMv.ple 
must  be  educated  to  the  point  where  they  are  willing  to 
nay  more  for  the  education  of  their  children,  not  only'^for 
the  good  of  the  children  but  for  the  good  of  the  State. 
Closely  allied  to  this  objection  is  the  feeling  held  by  .some 
that  the  abandonment  of  the  one-r(M)in  scIkk)!  will'dcpre- 
ciate  the  property  in  one  district  to  increase  the  value  of 
f;irms  in  the  district  where  the  con.solidated  .school  is  situ- 
;it<-d.   This  is  not  borne  out  by  the  facts.   Consolidatioii  of 
schools  means  the  con.solidation  of  neigh*- >rhoods.    What 
before  consolidation  were  two  or  three  .separate  neigh- 
borhoods become  one  strong,  organized  communitv,  and 
the  value  of  every  farm  within    the  con.solidated  .listrict 
becomes  enhanced.    Reports  from  the  state  su,,erintend. 
ents  of  education  in  Kan.sas.  Nebraska,  California,  Iowa, 
and  \ermont,  all  state  that   no  depreciation   has  taken 
place,  but.  on  the  contrary-,  that  consoli.Iation  has  added 
to  the  value  of  the  farms  in  .some  localities. 


-1 


90 


A(iHI(l  I/nUAL   KDICATION 


Many  other  objections  have  been  raised,  hut  there  is  not 
one  tlial  has  been  put  forth  !)y  the  o[)i)onenfs  of  the  niove- 
nH'iil  t!  .it  cannot  l)e  satisfactorily  answeretl  from  the  ex- 
perience of  (hstricts  where  conso|i<laf ion  has  been  in  suc- 
cessful o|)cration  for  many  years. 


HOW    SHALL    CONSOLIDATION    UK    ACfOMPLISnED 

This  chai)ter  may  he  ( losed  hy  considering  the  steps  that 
may  he  taken  to  hring  al)oiil  consohdation  in  a  given  dis- 
trict. .\  campaign  is  generally  ne<'essary  in  order  to  induce 
the  people  to  adopt  the  plan.  First,  the  general  school  situ- 
ation in  the  county  should  he  studied.  I'nless  this  he  done, 
.several  very  un«lesiral>le  things  are  likely  to  hapi)en:  a  few 
isolated  one-room  schools  may  Ix'  left  too  far  from  the 
central  school;  s<hnols  may  he  |)l.iccd  in  districts  where  the 
I)oi»ulation  is  cliangejilile,  necessitating  a  change  later  to  a 
more  favorable  hxation;  and  more  consolidated  scliools 
are  likely  to  he  organized  than  are  actually  re<|uired.  This 
latter  lariger  should  he  more  carefully  guarded  against 
than  in  the  case  of  the  district  school,  as  a  consolidated 
school  unwisely  IcKiited  may  easily  encroach  upon  the  field 
t)f  neighboring  school.s  and  thereby  Ijecoriie  a  source  of 
permanent  irritation  and  annoyance. 

The  data  to  be  obtained  in  the  study  of  the  county  situ- 
ation consist  of  information  regarding  the  location  and 
value  of  each  school  and  its  e(iuii)ment,  the  distances  the 
.schools  are  apart,  the  number  of  teachers  employed  to- 
gether with  their  salaries  and  qualifications,  so  as  to  obtain 
.some  indication  of  the  educational  conditions  of  the  com- 
nuinity;  the  location  of  the  farm  h»)nies,  the  condition  of 
the  roads,  topograpliical  features,  such  as  streams,  hills, 
etc..  the  number  of  j)apils.  their  ages  and  scholastic  attain- 
ments, the  population  depending  upon  each  school,  and 
the  distance  at  present  traveled  by  each  pupil  to  reach  the 
nearest  school. 

The  dat;i  should  be  indicated  on  a  maj)  of  the  county. 


THE   CONSOLIDATION    OF   S(II(KM„S 


!>7 


with  ull  proposod  consolidations,  the  su^KcstnJ  wapm 
roiitos,  and  the  i)roI)ahl»'  nuinlKT  of  pupils  to  rarh  s<liool. 
Such  a  map  will  give  a  <lcar  and  comprehensive  view  of  the 
school  situation  as  a  whole.  The  compilation  of  the  data 
does  not  mean  that  a  widespread  aj^itat ion  for  consoliilatioti 
throughout  the  whole  county  should  Ik*  begun  at  once. 
Tliis  would  be  .i  most  unwise  priH-iH-ding  and  would  proh- 
al)ly  lead  to  failure.  There  are  many  communities  that 
would  strenuously  ojjpose  such  u  movement;  there  are 
many  others  with  an  open  mind  toward  consolidation.  In 
many  localities  the  subject  is  not  underst<K)d.  In  some 
places  the  opposition  is  stronger  than  in  others,  and  thi.s 
opI)ositi(»n  may  be  best  overcome  by  an  actual  examination 
of  a  school  of  the  new  type. 

The  adoption  of  consolidation  depends  not  only  upon  the 
way  the  jx'ople  regard  it.  but  als<»  ufjon  the  ftflings  that 
exist  between  the  coiiununiticvs  that  are  to  f)e  parties  to  the 
consolidation.  .\  community  in  which  the  I)est  educational 
conditions  already  prevail  should  be  chosen  for  the  initial 
experiment.  The  agitation  .should  not  lie  sprung  upon  the 
people  suddenly,  nor  should  they  be  given  the  idea  that 
consolidation  is  to  be  forced  u})on  them.  A  small  committee 
consisting  of  the  teachers  of  the  .sch(K)ls  to  Im?  con.solidated 
might  first  be  formed.  The  early  di.scussions  should  be  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  information  and  not  for  argimient. 
This  information  can  be  given  by  visiting  in  the  homes 
and  by  describing  some  good  .scIkmiIs  to  the  children. 

This  quiet  campai^"  >f  instruction  may  l)e  followed  by  a 
series  of  educational  meetings  at  the  .schoolhou.se  and  the 
church,  and  discussions  through  the  newspapers.  The 
normal  school,  the  church,  the  high  school,  and  the  agri- 
cultural college  should  all  lie  called  upon  for  aid.  The 
chief  point  to  be  aimed  at  is  the  creation  of  a  desire  for  co- 
operation, and  a  broader,  closer  relationship  between  the 
different  communities;  and  if  this  can  be  accomplished, 
many  of  the  difficulties  will  vanish. 


AGRICTLTl  UAL  EDITATION 


Hy  this  time  the  district  may  l«"  ready  for  a  really  a;.';,'ri's- 
sivc  cairii)ai>.'!i.  It  is  an  cxcclliiit  plan  to  have  at  this  sta^c 
a  lecture  illustrated  l)y  lantern  slides,  pictures,  charts,  etc.. 
given  ]>y  Sdnie  person  who  has  nia<le  a  lhorou),'h  study  of 
consr)Iidation.  One  of  the  j;overnnieril  dejiartnients  will 
generally  provide  this.  Meetings  of  the  |>eople  should  1)C 
held  in  every  schoolhouse,  and  combined  meetings  of  all 
the  se<'tion.s  should  l>e  held  later.  .\t  these  meetings  the 
methods  proi)osed  for  j'doption  and  the  advantages  to  l)C 
gained  should  he  laid  clearly  before  the  people,  ((uestions 
being  invited  and  the  fullest  discus.sion  encouraged. 

If  the  district  has  any  wealthy  farmers,  it  might  be  jmis- 
sible  to  induce  them  to  follow  the  exatiiple  .so  well  set  by 
Mr.  Swaney.  The  whole  agitation  should  be  kept  up  unt'l 
the  iK'<)ple  are  thoroughly  aroused,  and  the  vote  should 
be  taken  when  the  interest  fs  thoroughly  established.  In 
view  of  the  .splendid  possibilities  for  the  efficient  teaching 
of  agriculture  and  the  general  r<>organi/,ation  of  country 
life,  which  the  con.solidatcd  scIk»o1  provides,  any  efforts  that 
may  cause  the  peo})le  to  adopt  consolidation  will  Ik'  amply 
repaid  in  the  securing  of  a  richer  country  life  and  a  more 
decided  vcK-ational  ellicieucy  among  the  dwellers  iu  the 
open  country. 


f  IIAITKR   VII 


%i\ 


RIUAL    SCHOOL   EXTKN.SIOX 

T:iK  work  that  wc  have  „„tli,u-d  tlms  far  will  rarrv  tl..- 
P-.pil  to  the  end  ,.f  tlu-  fourt.ri.thyoar  s.,  far  as  i,>str,utio,. 
in  s<luK,l  Ks  cncrrm-d.  TIuto  arc  rmvv  two  ether  factors 
of  Kr^-at  importance  to  be  considered:  first,  the  part  the 
toacher  can  j.hiy  in  directing  the  activities  of  the  hov  out- 
side of  the  school,  particularly  during  the  last  two  vt'ars  of 
his  .s<h.H,l  hfe,  when  he  is  iHrominj;  of  ,so,„e  definite  use-  to 
li.s  father  on  the  farm;  second,  what  can  Ik;  done  for  the 
trrc.t  number  ..f  boys  and  ^'irls  who  leave  school  at  four- 
teen years  of  a^e  or  younj^er. 

It  is  difficult  for  city  people,  and  even  for  many  in  the 
country,  to  realize  the  change  that  has  come  over  the  coun- 
try .s<.|hki1.  Generally  they  think  of  the  ol<l-time  country 
school  with  an  attendance  of  thirty  to  seventy  pupils, 
many  of  them  over  eighteen  years  of  age.  Large  classes 
NNvre  the  rule  and  they  were  generally  taught  bv  a  man 
strong  morally,  intellectually,  and  often  phvsically.  Hut 
the  actual  condition  of  things  to-day  is  ver>'  different  from 
tins. 

SCHOOL   CREDIT    FOR    HOME    I'UOJECTS 

In  many  states  it  is  now  becoming  the  practice  to  give 
(redit  in  school  for  certified  work  done  at  home  Such 
liome  work  as  the  teacher  is  «,ualified  to  supervise  should 
receive  her  attention.  Suitable  home  projects  are  corn- 
f^rowing.  potato-growing,  poultry-raising,  simple  garden- 
ing, and  home  reading.  There  is  no  teacher,  however  p<K)rly 
(juahfied,  who  cannot  fit  herself  in  a  short  time  to  give  in- 
struction and  direction  in  some  form  of  useful  hoine  work. 
1  he  influence  of  the  school  luust  reach  the  iilace  where  the 


II 


i;,;  I 


luo  A(.|{I(  I  I.T!  I{.\L    r.DlC  ATICJN 

triiiniti;,'  is  to  l;ik"  mof,  atnl  tlmt  i-.  tli«"  lioim-  ami  tlic  fartii. 
Til  many  rural  |)(ii|ilc  tin-  xlioul  i-.  tuo  far  away  in  spirit  to 
In-  of  very  irrc.it  <'oiiccrii;  Imt  wlnti  it  cinruvs  info  ai'tiial 
loiicli  witli  tlir  liDiiif  tliry  r«'L;a!-il  it  from  a  iliffrrciil  staml- 
|)Mirit.  What  may  Itr  doiic  uill  (|<  |itii(l  >.om<uliat  upon  the 
<juahlications  of  the  teacher,  hut  tlic  nerds  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  she  works  should  l>e  th»'  deciding;  factor. 
As  soon  as  slie  has  made  herself  a<(|uainted  with  .som«'  ttf 
these  needs,  slie  should  strivi'  to  (pialify  herself  to  assist  in 
the  work  re(|uired.  It  will  not  In-  lalior  lo>  ,  even  if  she 
moves  from  the  district  the  next  year.  No  country  scIkm)! 
.should  he  allowed  to  limit  its  activities  to  the  school  and  its 
grounds. 

FORMS  or  i(ii{\i.  sciiooi,   i:\ti:nsio\  skuvki; 

The  forms  which  rural  mIiooI  extension  work  has  taken 
may  l)e  smnmari/cd  as  follows:  — 

1.  ("lulisof  various  kinds  for  hoys  and  ^'irls:  corn-j^"ow- 
ing,  polalo-j^Towing,  caniiin^^,  hread-niakinj^,  garment- 
making',  etc. 

"i.  School  fairs  for  the  exhihition  of  products  made  or 
raised  hy  the  cliildren. 

3.  The  formation  of  youJig  |H'opl»**s  institutes,  in  order 
to  provide  profilahle  instruction  for  jHTsons  too  young  to 
join  the  regular  farmers'  and  women's  institutes. 

1.  Short  courses,  continuing  for  periods  varying  from 
one  week  to  two  or  three  months,  at  the  nearest  high  school. 

5.  Rural  evening  schools  for  continued  education,  and 
also  to  provide  opportunity  for  those  whose  early  educa- 
tion has  heen  neglected. 

hoys'    and   OIRLs'    AGRICrLTVRAL   CLrBS 

The  agricultural  eluhs  arc  associations  of  hoys  and  girls 
who  enter  into  a  compt'tition  to  determine  who  can  grow 
the  most  and  the  hest  of  a  specified  |)roduct  on  a  certain 
area  of  ground,  under  definite  rules  which  all  agree  to  ac- 


IMHAL   SdKKH.    i:\TF,\SI()\ 


101 


I 

i 


rept.  A  corn-f^nviiif;  cliil)  would  thus  dral  with  roni  and 
a  <ut»(.ii-^rrowirit,'  .  lul.  vsjil,  ,ulluii.  'Ih,-  .oiil  's  fnr  ^'irln 
liavr  fr<'(|iifiilly  (•.•ntcrnl  ahoiif  l.r<a<l-iiiakinK',  jx.iilfry- 
raiMii^'.  sewing,  or  flosv.T-Kn.wiri^'.  Kv.ntiially  IIu-m-  cIuLs, 
uhich  arc  now  vviilcspmuj,  uill  pn.l.ahly  Uv  inci.rporah-d 
info  some  more  prrnianrnf  form  of  cliicafional  or^'aniza- 
lion;  liiit  they  an-  performing,'  a  useful  fun<fion  as  at  pn-s- 
<iif  coristitufrd  and  tliry  Mvin  to  Im-  an  important  link  in 
the  evolution  of  a  more  e(Iiei«-nt  system.  The  einl.s  arc 
\h-\uh  ch.M'Iy  alllliated  with  the  work  of  th<'  s<-||(m.Is  an<l  are 
I.e^'imiiiiK  to  be  regarded  an  a  definite  |.art  of  thee.hiea- 
tional  system. 

Club  work-  in  the  I'nilal  States.  —  T\u>  first  state-wide 
elul)  movement  l.e>.'an  alx.ut  lH!)8in  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  was  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  natur<'-study  h-aflets 
issued  l)y  the  College  of  Agricullun'  of  Cornell  Iniversity. 
Owing  to  the  popular  interest  now  In-ing  display.d  in 
agricultural  education,  the  recent  growth  of  this  movement 
lias  heen  rapid.  The  first  clul.s  organized  in  the  I'nited 
States  were  corn  cluhs,  followed  hy  tomato,  cotton,  and 
potato  ciuhs.  and  cluhs  for  raising  pigs  and  [Kiultry. 

The  contest  cluhs  have  not  only  s<'cured  the  interest  of 
the  hoys  and  girls,  hut  they  have  al.so  gained  the  a<-tive  co- 
operation of  the  i)arents.  husiness  men.  and  |)rogressive 
people  of  the  comnumity.  The  organization  generally  fakes 
the  county  as  a  unit,  and  is  planned  through  the  county 
su[)erinten(lent  of  schools.  The  teachers  explain  the  plan 
and  obtain  names  of  pupils  wishing  to  join.  S*^^]  is  fur- 
nished the  first  year,  and  the  contestant  selects  his  own  for 
the  second  year.  The  boys  of  the  entire  county  are  usually 
assemble*!  in  some  central  place  for  instruction  and  direc- 
tion. Each  Ixjy  agrees  to  raise  one  acre  of  corn  in  accord- 
ance with  directions  furnished.  The  I'liited  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  provides  circulars  of  instruction  in 
reganl  to  seed  selection  and  prei)aration.  fertilization,  and 
cultivation  of  the  soil.   A  special  blank  form  is  also  {..ro- 


f 


lOi 


AGRICULTUR.VL  EDUCATION 


vided,  w'lich,  when  filled  in,  gives  a  complete  record  of  the 
work,  in(  hiding  tlic  cost  and  the  value  of  the  croj). 

The  results  tliat  have  been  achieved  are  almost  beyond 
belief.  In  1911,  three  boys  made  better  records  in  corn- 
production  than  had  ever  been  made  before.  One  boy 
produced  isJl^j  bushels  on  one  acre,  at  a  cost  of  8.6  cents 
per  bushel;  another,  'i-Z7\  bushels,  at  a  cost  of  14  cents  a 
l)ushcl;  and  another  'i\■i^  bushels,  at  a  cost  of  14. i2  cents 
per  bushel.  Four  other  boys  produced  from  !210  to  2'25 
bushels  on  their  acres,  at  a  cost  of  20  to  35  cents  per  bushel.' 

In  1912,  in  the  State  of  Alabama,  137  boys  produced 
more  than  100  bushels  per  acre.  Twenty  of  them  made 
an  average  of  165.11  bushels.  Valuing  corn  at  $1.00  per 
bushel,  and  deducting  all  expenses,  these  boys  made  a 
total  profit  of  $2716.89;  the  average  profit  was  $135.84, 
and  the  average  cost  per  bushel  wsis  17  cents.  In  one 
county  in  Mississippi,  the  boys'  corn  club  had  300  mem- 
bers, the  average  yield  per  acre  was  70  bushels,  while  the 
average  for  the  state  was  only  14.5  bushels  per  acre.  In 
South  Carolina,  one  boy  raised  152  i  bushels  on  a  measured 
acre,  while  the  state  average  was  less  than  16  bushels  per 
acrc.^ 

Club  contests  in  Canada.  —  In  Carleton  County,  On- 
tario, a  potato-growing  contest  was  inaugurated  in  1912, 
open  to  boys  twelve  to  eighteen  years  of  age,  who  lived  on 
farms  not  less  than  fifty  acres  in  extent.  Thirty-five  boys 
entered,  and  twenty-two  carried  out  the  work  in  all  its 
details.  The  plot  to  be  o[>erated  was  one  tenth  of  an  acre. 
The  accompanying  illustrations  are  facsimiles  of  the  re- 
ports sent  in  by  the  winner  of  the  first  prize.  Similar  re- 
ports were  required  from  each  contestant.  The  average 
yield  of  the  first  six  prize-winners  was  388  bushels  per  acre. 


•  ("ommissionor  of  Education.  Report.  1912,  vol.  1.  United  States 
Bureau  of  Kduiiilion. 

2  .Miiljuniii's  Country  Schoob.  Bulletin  33,  Department  of  Education. 
Montgomery,  .Xlubama. 


'I 


'11 


ill 


:ll! 


f-'i 

m 


RXPtNSES  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  PLOT 

ll(*nt  of  Iiiml  fal  rate  of  :g;i-00  jut  arro)         ... 

CoBt  of  lubour  (.i)  For  LorM-H  (at»I(><    per  haur  ca*!))    - 
(h)  Kur  (  orupHtitor  (;it  lfV\  p-r  hour) 
((■)  For  other  iisKi-,t;in(  c  (;it  'iCK-.  pt-r  hour) 

Cost  of  iiuinurt-  lii(  §1  <Mt  p.-r  tun) 

Cost  of  (.■oriinit-ruHl  fertili/.tT^       ..... 

Cortt  of  Sfcd  ... 

CoHt  of  spriiyiii^  inati'inl  ..... 

T..t.il  cost 


KECHIMTS 

Total  Viiliic  of  s.iliiblr  |>otatin's  on  pi'it  iit  t<<k-    [  >r  bur^hrl 
V.iluo  of  unwililhlf  tiilMTH  ;it  Uk     JXT  hlishel 
T..t;il  v.h..- 

srATLMtM  OF  pwonr  ano  loss. 

Total  V.ilm-  '.f  .  n.p  ^l-.  ;lt)n\«-  .  -  - 

Tot.il  rosi  of  pmmIii.  Itoti 
N.t  proht 
Net  (Ohl  of  proJuf  lll^^  one  tju-.|icl  n'0  pmiTMi-.) 
Net  profit  [HT  acre  from  the  ciitirpt  m' 


"      JO* 

/.  av 
So 


^/ 


2_  S'cl. 


*3r    fo^ 
^39    OS'' 


I  liiri'liy  iiTlify  l]  at  tin  inforiiiution  hiibmitliil  in  this  K.  |j.irt  Fuirn  is  ri)rrc(.t  un<l 
that  I  h.i\r  i.omlin  ti'il  tin- w.irl<  :u  f  imliiif^  til  tile  >I><'»  ifii-ti  rtil'3  "f  Id''  Coiii|HHitiuii  to 
the  U".t  of  i'i>  »hiht>  —V  o^—v 

t^  /^r  .rom|«lil4»r  I 

thin       »i  7.  lUy  nl    I 

1)1^     ' 


-W*' 


FIELD    NOTES  ON    POTATO    PLOT      1914 


4i-9ty 


(i^^^y^^^^yl.   Z?l<>^T.-n.h,r      '^/i^*^<U<3^iAy 


TVM. 


Paul 

A«*oa  Mfty  iJtb.  lilt 

Nun*  of  pftraot  i^^iBi 

PnM  offlca  •ddrMft. 

VwiMy  of  puMtoM  plUMd  (1 

Wb«ra  wu  Mart  obutBMl  * 

Itld  yoorpknooonMof  giartJT  I  10  icr**'         ■'''^4^' 

Hoofrow.  X  Di««K*.p»,f>frv».     Jc?^t*'     Nv   pi.oU  or  bwl/.n  «.  h  ro— ^  ^^ 

CbAracMr  of  tub  hiii       .^-'^^"Ctr- ^'X^rO^-W- 

W'hMcrop  »U|(ro*o  on  itiia  l4Bd  .o  1911  ^"^      -5/2^-Wi.  <I^^^ 
I>«taor|oio|  oa  lud  UnAtpnn,;  <lJI«t       ~^/,  Ct^      /--^ 
How  »•■  II  colt.T.trj  h«-f.,r*  (-lADl'Dil '         -^/l^j^LU^i 


".r 


.Q^ 


*«^     -C^i^L-CCCC. 


CuBdtllltl  of  l4,ld  ftt  (lUi«  uf  plU)[,D^ 


Iliad  01  oiumMrl"'!  -<^'*^^^^   --^>-<^<i^  _^^it 

D.dyooo«u,  roiiiiu.,ti»l  frriil  Mr.,  iQj,r«,.r..i  k,od.iiJh-,.  mu.-l.'  ,    *  Z^T 


■^  *  »»1*-M<«,tt.- 


Dtu  or  plAatiB^  plul 

Lirt  you  uM  wbol*  or  cjI  p-jUt 

JUol  poUlora  nprc  i.»^.  t.uw  »w.o  i.ft«r  cuitmt;  ■•■"  uir)    u*d 

U,J  yoo  .|,imlil<  J, ma  „,  1,0.1  |,Ja.trr  00  il>.  wa  .B..  ,  jiiin, 

IMJ  vou  Iraki  Ibr  tubara  w,ir,  foroialiB  tu  i.ratjuil  acab 

How  (iMp  wart  IM  aa(a  pianiaO 

How  w»aniaotiL^  Jooe  ■    h>  f,  .ij  I    by  ii-a.  •>  u.     id  r  .rr.  -^r  .lr.,|.|,,i  iq  b 

Nottbarnf  |»>,iB.|.  j'laoLJ       (/3        /  ^»iX-   v-Avt*v^l^-^ 

Did  a:t  r.r  .ciaMrow  and  if  -J  ni'  a  l,--!  run  ^lauJ  ■        ^^^'i. 

I'aiaaur  diBBrroi  ' -.  •,  . ..  *^ 

TulAl  BUUibf 

Did  yoo  caiirTaic  afu-r  rath  baa 
I>al««o(*i>rayiaii  r>"  luit" 


a  to  i.ra»»oi  afab>  /)  ^'ift^^^ 

,  .I.-  .. .,.  ,.  r  ..^  ,„  ,,i^,„, ,.  bo,.,  d,.,  ~.^^ryc£^^JUuiC-...^  /jU^ 

i.ol...„r.,.,,..ai,d  /.4<y  Z^Y    ^Uf-''^if<^^'''''^'''^y'^     '<^^' 


DMnof  aprftyia,;  wir 


)'jrvl««uK  Uiiturp 


^2<>"  >^iM,^A*v^  y^f^'^^,^^^^./^  ,.^4^4^ 


Lid  :u«n«*«r  berume  bfcJiy  fkUb  t,y  bugi  ■         j^£^' 


W«i«iop%6«»»«do-ib«dly  br«.mi«'  Jc*,«<      a2^*^  ^^Hr^-^-*^     c€4-4^4^>^ 


C'o^UiUoo  of  topt  U  lUt*  or  JiMiDtl 


-<ME^X^<-**^.^Cc/V-' 


•'/' 


Dkta  of  di|{«isc 

t>.d  yoa  wlwt  uy  •p^.lly  jood  till,  to  »,-  .  m»1  pi.*  Mii  yw   mj  ,|  ^,.  t,.„  „,,^ 

WMUd  you  l>k«  to  Oa  aom*  .pw:,*,  mux\  ».ni  pot»u««  a^ua  Mit  ,cu  ' 

AftOVl  «bKt  would  te  Um  ««rrs^e  )  i«|J  , 


•CaioJ. 


i"tftt(i««  i*r  wre  ii 


44^1 


Co, 


r  Jiauiciitiia  ^ear 


Cc^*-J^J  if  Aje;*«t.. 


i 


1 

» 

1 

I    ■; 

i 

RUiLVL  SCHOOL  EXTENSION 


103 


that  of  the  first  thirteen  was  343  bushels  per  arre,  and  that 
of  all  competitors  was  i85  bushels  jht  acre,  while  the 
average  for  the  whole  province  was  only  134  bushels  iter 
acre. 

The  results  obtained  in  Canada  through  the  Macdonald 
movement  are  interesting  from  an  economic  point  of  view. 
The  improvement  was  due  entirely  to  seed-selection  by 
boys  and  girls.  Selection  was  carried  on  for  three  years  and 
resulted  in  increasing  the  yield  of  spring  wheat  by  18  {)er 
cent  in  the  number  of  grains  per  hundred  heads  and  by  28 
per  cent  in  the  weight  of  grains  per  hundred  heads.  Equal 
improvements  were  also  shown  in  the  case  of  oats,  during 
a  three-years  course  of  seed-selection. 

The  educational  results  of  this  movement  have  l)een  as 
great  as  the  economic  returns.  The  boys  have  learned  to 
observe  more  closely  not  only  their  own  particular  crop  and 
all  tL ''.53  affecting  it,  but  also  corresponding  features  of 
other  crops.  They  have  learned  how  to  keep  simple  ac- 
counts and  how  to  describe  the  work  they  have  done,  and 
they  have  developed  a  certain  power  of  initiative.  The 
social  instinct  and  the  ability  to  work  with  others  have 
been  strengthened,  and  a  basis  has  been  laid  for  that  future 
cooi>eration  which  must  be  adopted  if  farming  is  to  reach 
its  highest  success  as  a  business. 


ll 


if 

11 


I: 


SCHOOL    FAIRS 

Another  form  of  extension  work  that  needs  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  holding  of  school  fairs.  This  movement  has 
grown  naturally  out  of  the  club  work,  and  is  really  another 
form  of  club  work,  as  the  contest  idea  is  at  the  root  of  lx)th. 
These  rural  school  fairs  are  capable  of  rendering  great  as- 
sistance to  the  work  of  the  rural  schools  both  directly  and 
indirectly,  in  arousing  public  interest  which  is  so  necessary 
to  the  welfare  of  scliools. 

School  fairs  in  Ontario.  —  School  fairs  have  I  een  largely 
developed  in  the  I*rovince  of  Ontario.    During  the  year 


if 


104 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


1913,  seventy  fairs  were  held  in  different  parts  of  the  prov- 
ince. There  was  an  average  of  350  exhibits  at  each  fair, 
which  gives  a  total  of  24,500  exhibits.  While  at  some  of  the 
fairs  one  pupil  made  several  exhibits,  it  can  easily  be  seen 
that  this  secured  the  active  interest  of  at  least  15,000  chil- 
dren. Then,  too,  there  were  present  at  cadi  of  these  fairs 
from  500  to  1500  persons,  with  an  average  perhaps  of  700, 
wliich  gives  an  approximate  aggregate  of  49,000  persons 
interested.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  school  fair  had  l)een 
adof)ted  only  the  previous  year  as  a  branch  of  the  general 
work  of  the  Provincial  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
progress  is  rather  remarkable.  Many  i)ersons  who  have 
betni  present  at  these  fairs,  and  are  in  a  position  to  estimate 
their  value,  have  pronounced  them  one  of  the  most  prac- 
tical means  yet  evolved  for  interesting  the  boys  and  girls 
in  agricultural  affairs. 

The  first  step  in  organizing  a  rural  school  fair  in  any  dis- 
trict is  the  establishment  of  a  rural-school-fair  association, 
with  regular  officers,  just  as  for  adult  assm-iations.  In  this 
way  the  boys  and  girls  are  given  some  of  the  honor  and  re- 
sponsibility, and  at  the  same  time  have  opportunity  for  the 
development  of  executive  ability.  The  district  representa- 
tive of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  after  organizing  the 
association  and  getting  a  numlwr  of  schools  interested,  dis- 
tributes pure  seeds  of  various  grains  and  vegetables,  and 
eggs  from  pure-bred  strains  of  poultry.  These  are  taken 
care  of  by  the  children  during  the  year,  and  from  the  re- 
sults obtained  the  exhibits  are  made.  The  prize  money  is 
contributed  by  local  i)eople,  municipal  councils,  schofil 
Ix^ards,  and  other  public  bodies. 

The  fair  held  in  the  Blenheim  Continuation  School  was 
participated  in  by  twenty-four  rural  schools.  This  was 
made  possible  by  the  coiiperation  of  the  public  school  in- 
spector, the  district  representative,  and  twenty-four  rural 
school-teachers.  The  exhibits,  apart  from  curios,  were  the 
products  provided  by  the  children,  and  consisted  of  fowls, 


RUR\L  SCHOOL   EXTEXSIOX  105 

fhickens,  geese,  ducks,  and  turkeys,  and  a  wide  assortment 
of  agricultural  produce.  The  work  of  tlie  girls  consisted  in 
cooking,  sewing,  and  butter-making.  During  the  after- 
noons, contests  of  various  kinds  were  held.  Seventy-five 
boys  entered  a  com-judgmg  contest,  fifty  boys  and  girls 
entered  a  seed-identification  contest,  and  thirty  girls  en- 
tered a  sewing  contest.  The  attendance  was  about  2000, 
and  thf.  actual  exhibits  were  over  2000.  filling  the  eight 
rooms  of  the  continuation  school  in  addition  to  the  grounds, 
which  were  devoted  to  poultry  of  many  kinds. 

The  district  representative  in  the  County  of  Durham 
has  mapped  his  county  into  a  series  of  school-fair  districts, 
embracing  from  five  to  nine  school  sections  each.  At  one  of 
the  fairs  in  this  county,  204  bred-to-lay  pullets  were  ex- 
hibited by  children  to  whom  eggs  had  been  allotted  by  the 
Agricultural  College.  At  the  same  fair  a  large  tent,  sixty  by 
eighty  feet,  was  filled  with  produce  of  field  anfl  garden,  the 
poultrj'  lK>ing  .shown  outside.  In  organizing  and  conduct- 
ing the  exhibits  in  this  county,  the  children  were  given 
much  training  in  the  business  side  of  fair  organization;  not 
all  the  stress  was  placed  on  production.  The  summer-long 
management  of  affairs  prior  to  the  great  day  of  the  fair  was 
perhaps  of  greater  benefit  to  those  engaged  in  it  than  the 
school  fair  itself. 

Method  of  organization  and  management.  —  Let  us  take 
one  of  the  districts  into  which  the  county  is  divided,  con- 
taining nine  school  sections.  Each  schf)ol  elected  three 
meml>ers  to  represent  it  in  negotiations  to  follow.  The 
pupil  .securing  the  highest  numlier  of  votes  in  each  school 
was  termed  "director."  The.se  primary  elections  pro- 
vided each  rural  school  with  three  representatives.  The 
directors  from  all  the  schools  in  the  district  formed  a  town- 
shij)  body,  known  as  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  this  body 
of  nine  members  was  responsible  for  all  matters  concerning 
the  fair.  Boys  and  girls  alike  were  rcpresenteti.  no  distinc- 
tion being  made.    The  board  had  work  to  do,  not  all  of 


PI 

in 


it 

IF 

■  ft 


'Mi 


Iflfi 


AGRICULTIRAL  EDICATION 


wliicli  was  child's  play.  A  prize  list  was  drawn  up,  and  the 
money  had  to  l>e  |)r<)vided.  The  youthful  hoard  inter- 
viewed the  township  council,  the  trustee  hoanls  of  the  nine 
schools,  and  the  provincial  and  federal  Memhers  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  secured  donations  from  all.  The  hoard  met  six 
times  durinj^  the  summer  for  the  transaction  of  husiiiess. 
Minutes  were  k<'i)t,  and  every  entry  was  |)receded  hy  a 
resolution,  moved  and  seconded  aecordinf;  to  jmiper  form. 
The  secretary  had  many  letters  to  write,  and  he  used  jjood 
note-i)aper  hearing'  the  heading?,  "South  Hoik-  Rural  S<hooI 
Fair  Association."  Entry  tickets  were  |)rinted,  and  hooks 
were  kept  as  carefully  as  those  of  the  larj,'e  state  and  county 
fairs. 

The  sehool-tair  idea  in  Ontario  was  ori>j;inated  by  two  of 
the  county  representatives  of  the  Department  of  .Vjn'ieul- 
ture,  and  nmch  of  the  succe.s.s  at  present  achieved  is  due  to 
these  officers,  .\fter  living  on  the  },'round  for  two  years, 
they  knew  the  actual  condition  of  the  country  districts,  and 
they  believed  that  in  this  effort  they  had  found  the  best 
method  of  dealinj^  with  the  ajxrieultural  problem  so  far  as  it 
relates  to  the  children  in  the  elementary  .school.  The  active 
cooperation  of  all  the  teachers  is  .secured,  and  the  interest 
excited  in  the  neij,'liborlhM)d  is  inten.sc.  The  .school  fairs  are 
the  subject  of  thought  and  attention  in  the  farm  homes  for 
miles  around.  The  days  on  which  the  fairs  are  held  bring 
the  people  from  outlying  districts  together,  and  thus  a  de- 
sirable .st)cial  feeling  is  developed.  The  parents  are  best 
reached  through  their  children,  and  for  this  reason  the 
movement  is  bound  to  react  favorably  on  the  elementary 
schools. 

In  the  organization  of  these  fairs  one  great  danger  nnist 
be  guarded  against:  they  must  be  kept  strictly  educational, 
and  no  side  shows  or  other  questionable  attractions  must 
be  allowed  to  creep  in.  The  condition  of  many  county  fairs 
at  present  in  all  parts  of  America  shows  that  this  warning 
is  not  unnecessary. 


RlTtAL   SCHOOL  EXTENSION 


107 


in 


YOUNG    people's    INSTITITES 

Farmers'  institutes  were  established  for  the  adult  farmer, 
and  they  are  meeting  the  expectations  to  a  consideral)le 
degree.  It  is  now  evident  that  something  must  he  done  for 
the  large  number  of  l)oys  and  girls  who  leave  s<'hool  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  who  do  not  attend  a  high  school,  and  who 
are  too  young  to  join  the  ordinary  farmers'  institute.  In 
order,  therefore,  that  oi)j)ortunify  to  IxKotne  acquainted 
with  agricultural  operations  may  be  given  to  such  young 
persons,  from  whose  ranks  the  future  farmers  and  farmers' 
wives  must  be  drawn,  there  have  been  organized  in  several 
states  "Farmers'  Institutes  for  Young  People."  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  class 
under  discussion  are  engaged,  in  whole  or  in  part,  in  earn- 
ing their  own  livelihood,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
omit  much  of  what  has  been  looked  upon  as  strictly  educa- 
tional, and  to  devote  attention  to  direct  vocational  instruc- 
tion. The  primary  object  is  the  building  up  of  a  better  agri- 
culture by  training  young  |)eople  in  the  Ijest  methods  of 
increasing  crops,  restoring  worn-out  soils,  and  disposing  of 
tlie  products  of  the  farm  in  a  profitable  way.  The  real  aim 
is  to  teach  both  how  to  make  money  in  agriculture  and 
how  to  spend  this  money  wisely.  The  instruction  should 
become  the  connecting  link  between  the  class  in  agriculture 
and  the  contests  in  the  elementary  school,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  a  reformed  farmers'  institute  on  the  other.  Institutes 
of  this  kind  should  l)e  looked  upon  as  a  step  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  a  system  of  agricultural  education  that  will  secure 
tlie  effective  training,  to  at  least  the  age  of  eighteen  years, 
of  tiiose  who  voluntarily  choose  the  occupations  of  agricul- 
ture and  home-making  as  their  life  work. 

This  need  of  education  along  agricultural  lines  for  young 
persons  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age  is  not  yet 
fully  appreciated.  But  any  one  who  has  ol)served  the  interest 
aroused  by  the  clubs  must  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 


» 


M 


I? 


108 


AGRICrLTlRAL  EDIC  ATION 


the  yoiinp  pvo]Av  of  the  countrj'  are  now  rv.uiy  to  receive 
more  formal  and  ilefiiiite  ■mstniction  in  uKricnltnre  and 
home  economics,  if  means  are  provided  that  are  adapted  to 
their  ajje,  attainments,  and  re(inirements. 

The  vocational  training  of  the  country  youth  has  not 
HH-eived  the  attention  that  has  l)een  jiiven  to  they<inth  in 
the  towns  who  is  lookinj'  toward  u  mechanical  jiursuit.  The 
proi)osal  to  comiK'l  the  employer  of  lahor  to  allow  young 
pco|)lc  from  the  factory  to  attend  mIum»1  for  a  certain 
numher  of  hours  each  week  has  heen  made  many  times; 
but,  so  far  as  is  known,  no  public  man  has  had  the  temerity 
to  propose  that  the  farmer  should  be  compelled  to  allow 
his  young  employee  to  do  tic  same  thing.  This  will  Im?  done 
some  day,  however,  when  c  are  prejjared  to  give  up  sonic 
of  the  boasted  independen'-e  of  denuKracy. 

It  is  essential  that  these  young  peo|)le's  institutes  should 
be  under  the  direction  of  some  comiK-tent  authority.  Tak- 
ing all  things  intf)  consideration,  probably  the  In-st  head  to 
the  organization  would  f)e  the  county  superintendent  of 
education.  This  official  would  be  able  to  work  through  the 
clementarj'  teachers,  and  would  be  most  closely  in  touch 
witli  the  boys  and  girls  leaving  school.  Success  will  more 
likely  be  achieved  if  there  is  no  gap  between  the  boy's 
leaving  .schof»l  and  the  joining  of  such  an  association.  The 
teachers  know  the  pupils,  and  they  should  lay  the  ad- 
vantages of  such  an  association  before  them.  An  advisory 
committee  might  well  l)e  formed,  consisting  of  the  county 
superintendent,  the  lecturer  of  the  county  grange,  the 
president  of  the  farmers'  institute,  and  the  teacher  of 
the  school.  After  the  organization  is  completed,  the  offi- 
cial in  charge  should  act  in  an  advisory  capacity.  lie 
should  neither  dictate  nor  control,  but  should  always  \w 
accessible  for  the  purpose  of  giving  encouragement,  ad- 
vice, and  assistance.  One  of  the  advantages  to  be  ob- 
tained through  such  bodies  is  practice  in  the  management 
and  control  of  public  affairs,  and  this  cannot  be  secured 


m  lUL  SCHOOL   EXTENSION 


Id!) 


iinlt'ss  Uh'  niana^'finviit  is  in  the  hands  of  the  monilHTs 

IIUMUSI'IVOS. 

Ohjvvtii  i>f  inntitiitr^  f,,r  uniinij  people.  —  Tlio  ohjet'ts  of 
thosi"  iiistitutrs  luj-y  Ik-  oiiuriifrati'd  as  follows:  — 

1.  To  ti'ivv  practiral  ktiowK-dyc  of  tho  In-st  a^'ricultiiral 
nu-thods,  s|H'(ial  altriitioii  In-iiiK  Kivon  to  thf  ly|M's  of 
a>,'ri(iillurc  prcvalci  t  in  the  district. 

5i.  To  |)n'|)art'('xliil)itsfor  annual  rontrstsor  exhiliitions, 
showing  the  practical  application  of  the  teaching,'  j^'ivcn  at 
the  meetings  of  the  institute. 

.'J.  To  acc|uire  training  by  the  preparation  of  a(l<ires.se3 
on  country-life  subjects,  in  order  to  give  sufHcienl  prac- 
tice in  this  respect,  not  more  than  one  or  two  outside 
speakers  should  he  allowed  at  any  meeting.  The  main 
part  of  all  programs  should  lie  com|M»sed  of  hnal  taU-nt, 
the  boys  and  girls  themselves  being  recpiired  to  give  the 
results  v)f  their  readings  and  observations  on  assigned  sub- 
jects. 

4.  To  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  most  economical  methods 
of  doing  business.  This,  of  course,  will  necessitate  the 
study  of  a  proj^'r  system  of  b<H)kkeeping,  to  which  little 
attention  has  yet  been  given  by  the  farmer. 

5.  To  acquire  a  knowledge  of  parliamentary  usage  and 
practice  in  conducting  public  business. 

0.  To  instill  into  the  minds  of  the  boys  the  part  they 
have  to  play  in  the  making  of  a  home,  and  to  show  them 
why  a  comfortable  home  is  essential  to  the  success  of  agri- 
culture; that  the  farm  home  should  Ik-  su{)plied  with  all 
modern  conveniences  and  ai)i)liances,  as  the  farm  needs  to 
be  sui)plied  with  up-to-date  machinery. 

7.  To  indicate  the  sources  of  agricultural  literature,  and 
to  direct  attention  to  the  most  authoritative  information 
on  all  forms  of  agricultural  enteri^rise.  Every  institute 
shouhl  have  its  library,  consisting  of  b«K)ks  and  periodicals, 
properly  classified  and  arranged  for  circulation  and  refer- 
ence. 


no 


ACiUICrLTrilAL  EDICATION 


Offirrr.i  and  their  (liilica.  —  Inslilulcs  for  younR  p<-(.plc 
sliuiild  Im-  maii.i^'cd  by  the  ollicrrs  onlinarily  «lr(U'<l  to 
control  orjiaiii/ationn.  Tin-  coiislitiitioii  should  s|H'«ify 
the  ofliccrs  rtviuirrd  and  tlir  dutit's  of  viwh.  Tin'  con- 
stifnlion  of  an  Indiana  l)oys"  clul)  provides  for  tlit-  follow- 
ing' oHi<»'rs:  j)rf,sidfnl,  vi(«--|)rt>idrnt,  rf<<irdiiij,'  s«'<Ti'tary. 
corn-spondinj,'  .st-cntary,  tn-asunT.  (rilic,  and  d(M)rkfcptT. 
'l"lu>  dutifs  of  till-  (irsl  four  of  llu-so  aro  such  us  usually  |ht- 
lain  to  tlu'se  offices.  The  critic  is  snt>poscd  tcuall  attention 
to  mistakes  in  lanjjua^e,  and  to  l(K.k  up  disjjutcd  points 
in  jrrainniar,  choice  of  words,  pronunciation,  and  parlia- 
mentary usa^je.  The  doorkeei)er  is  exiK^cted  to  see  that  the 
place  of  meeting  is  ke|)t  comfortahle,  tidy,  and  proi>erly 
heated  and  ventilated,  and  to  lo(»k  aftj-r  the  comfort  of  the 
memhers  and  any  inviU  .!  ,'uesls.  To  these  officers  a  lihra- 
rian  might  l)e  added. 

Iftiiix'  cncampnicntn.  —  In  some  cases,  farmers'  Institutes 
or  colleges  of  agriculture  have  cstahlished  l)oys'  encamp- 
ments. These  continue  for  one  or  two  weeks,  and  the  mem- 
bers live  and  study  together  during  the  periotl.  Ix-ctures, 
demonstrations,  judging  contests,  and  other  means  of  in- 
sliiKlion  form  part  of  the  work;  and  at  the  close  of  the 
jK-riod,  i)rizes  are  awardeil  for  wiimers  in  stcnk,  grain,  and 
other  judging  conte.st.s.  and  for  proficiency  in  agricultural 
suhjectii.  as  determined  by  a  final  examination  on  the  work 
done  during  the  encampment.  One  «)f  the  most  interesting 
of  these  encampments  is  that  known  as  the  "Grout  Farm 
Encampment."  It  is  held  annually  on  Mr.  Grout's  farm, 
for  all  of  the  hoys  of  Scott  County.  Illinois,  who  care  to 
attend.  I>o<lging  is  provided  in  large  tents,  and  meals  and 
instruction  are  furnished  free.  The  camp  continues  for  a 
week,  and  is  attended  every  year  by  fifty  to  a  hundred 
hoys. 

Separate  iustitutes  for  girl.s.  —  So  far  the  institutes  that 
have  l)een  formed  have  been  composed  very  largely  of 
b.)v.-,,  although  many  of  them  have  a  strong  list  of  girl 


lU'IlAL  S(  II(X)L   EXTENSION  !1I 

mcrnhrrs.  For  n  time  at  Irast.  the  jiini..r  inslitiiirs  will 
pn.l.alily  Ih«  iitiion  tmrtiiij,'s,  with  siH-t-ial  srssions  fur  r.uh 
M-x.  as  re<miml.  Whih.  joint  iruvtiiiKs  will  always  Im-  nec- 
essary and  dfsirahlo.  the  time  will  pn.bably  come,  if  it  i<« 
not  alrea<ly  here,  when  separate  institutes  fc.r  Imys  and  for 
Hirls  will  have  to  Ik-  formed.  It  is  essenti.d  lliat  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  girl  Ik?  extended  in  many  dire(  lions  [k-*  iiliar  to 
her  work  and  nmls.  riiy.sical  and  moral  welfare  are  at 
the  l.asi.sofa  liappy  life,  and  in  maintaining  them  the 
woman  has  u  very  large  part.    Tiu-  purjxKses  of  institutes 

for  girls  may  be  stat«'d  as  follows:  — 

1.  To  inculcate  an  ajjpreciation  of  the  ne<-e.ssity  for  a 

sound  minri  in  a  healthy  Ixnly. 

i.  To  leach  the  laws  of  health  and  sanifaticm  as  apfdied 

to  the  person  and  to  the  home. 

S.  To   teach   the    comjMjsition  of   foods  and   the   Jm'sI 

methods  of  comhining  and   preparing  them   in  order  to 

meet  the  requirements  of  the  lK>dy  and  to  insure  its  highest 

efhcieney. 

i.  To  teach  the  principles  of  house-planning  and  archi- 
tecture, with  siR'oiul  attention  to  the  kitchen  as  u  working 
lal  (oratory. 

5.  To  encourage  the  intro«luction  of  modern  lahor-.s^iv- 
ing  appliances  into  the  home  in  order  that  time  may  he 
.saved  for  social  enjoyment  and  i)ersonal  culture. 

(i.  To  teach  the  fundamental  jirineiples  of  honie-mirsing 
and  what  to  do  in  emergency  cases  until  a  tloclor  can  fie 
secured. 

7.  To  point  out  the  princ-ii)Ies  to  Ix?  followed  in  the 
proper  care  and  rearing  of  children. 

8.  In  general,  the  instruction  of  the  girl  in  all  things  that 
relate  to  the  management  of  the  household,  to  the  end  that 
health  may  be  preserved  and  the  comfort  of  the  home 
assured,  without  such  an  expenditure  of  time  and  strength 
as  prohibits  participation  in  art,  music,  reading,  and  so- 
cial enjoyment. 


id 


ri 


112 


AGRICULTLKAL  EDUCATION 


Teachers  of  in.sfiiutrs  for  young  people.  —  In  conducting 
institutes  for  boys  and  girls  of  tlic  adolescent  age,  the  great- 
est care  needs  to  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of  teachers  The 
word  "teachers"  is  use<l  instead  of  "lecturers,"  as  the 
methods  of  the  teacher  should  be  employed.  The  old-time 
faruiers'  iiislitule  lecturer  will  not  do  for  this  work.  First 
of  all,  the  teacher  nmst  be  thoroughly  acnjuainted  with  the 
subject  on  which  he  is  to  speak;  })ut  beyond  tliis,  he  must 
know  how  to  teach  and  how  to  present  his  subject  in  the 
most  attractive  manner.  No  statement  should  be  made  to 
boys  and  girls  that  is  not  capable  of  pr(X)f,  and  whenever 
possible  the  principles  should  be  demonstrated  by  exi)eri- 
ment.  Theniimnerof  the  teacher  must  be  .such  as  will  in- 
spire the  confidence  of  the  young  folks  and  encourage  them 
to  ask  (juestions  and  to  take  part  in  the  institute. 

If  this  movement  be  properly  organized  and  conducted, 
it  has  great  |)ossibilities  in  the  vcK-ational  education  of  that 
part  of  the  rural  population  which  at  present  receives  no 
instruction  beyond  that  given  in  the  elementary  school.  It 
is  quite  probable  that  greater  good  will  \^c  accomplished 
by  teaching  agriculture  and  the  larger  ideals  of  country  life 
to  these  yt)ung  [)eople  than  in  teaching  the  same  things  to 
adult  men  and  svoraen,  the  greater  part  of  whose  work 
lies  in  the  past. 

SIltIRT   COURSES   IN   AGRirTLTUBE 

Another  method  of  instruction  that  has  been  adopted 
with  some  success  is  that  of  short  intensive  courses  at  the 
high  school  or  agricultural  college.  The  proper  develoj)- 
mcnt  of  regular  courses  in  agricultural  high  schtK)ls  will 
probably  take  care  of  the  needs  of  all  the  boys  and  girls 
who  are  able  to  continue  their  formal  education  beyond 
the  elementary  school.  The  practice  followed  in  some 
high  schools,  of  holding  courses  lasting  from  two  to  six 
months  and  allowing  the  remainder  of  th<>  year  to  be 
sj)ent  on  the  farm,  v  ill  make  it  possible  for  many  more 


Rl'ML  SCHOOL   EXTENSION  113 

to  attend  than  if  the  courses  were  continued  for  ten  or 
twelve  nionth-s. 

But  when  the  agricultural  high  schools  have  done  their 
iK'st  to  encourage  attendance  at  their  regular  courses, 
there  still  will  l>c  a  large  majority  of  the  rural  population 
tiiat  will  not  be  reached.  For  these,  the  short  courses  al)ove 
referred  to  may  be  successfully  offered.  They  should  Ik? 
held  at  a  time  when  the  boy  is  least  rcfjuired  on  the  farm 
and  the  girl  in  the  home.  A  great  deal  can  be  accomplished 
in  the  course  of  three  months  devoted  to  a  special  subject, 
where  the  course  is  organized  in  such  a  way  as  to  cut  out  nil 
extraneous  matter  and  the  instruction  is  concentrated  on 
fundamentals. 


■S    i 


RT'R.\L   EVENING   SCHOOLS 

The  only  form  of  continued  education  that  is  open  to  a 
large  ninnl)er  of  boys  and  girls  who  are  compelled  by  eco- 
nomic necessity  to  work  throughout  the  day,  is  some  type 
of  evening  school.  It  may  l)e  admitted  that  education  in 
evening  schools  s  .serious  defects,  but  in  tlie  jjresent  state 
of  society  it  is  nece3.sary  and  renders  a  service  tliat  is  per- 
formed by  no  other  agency,  i  lie  large  numl)er  of  illiterates 
existing  in  country  districts  is  due  in  part  to  failure  to  es- 
tablish and  enforce  compulsorj-  education.  The  fact  that 
illiterates,  by  the  exercise  of  the  franchise,  have  as  great  a 
power  in  the  State  as  those  who  are  educated,  is  a  serious 
menace  to  good  government.  In  some  close  constituencies, 
the  illiterate  voters  control  the  situation.  The  dead  weight 
of  illiteracy,  wherever  found,  must  \>e  removed  from  agri- 
culture if  it  is  ever  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  other  industries. 

Two  purposes  are  served  by  evening  schools:  they  pro- 
vide for  the  continuance  of  the  elementary  education  of 
children  and  of  adults  who  have  left  the  day  school  at  u 
early  age,  and  they  furnish  industrial  or  vocational  tr  ,t- 
ing  calculated  to  make  effective  workers.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  these  two  purposes  are  one,  for  unless  the  first  is 


It 


1 


i 


114 


AGRICULTITIAL  EDUCATION 


satisfactorily  perfunnt'tl  it  is  useless  to  hope  to  accomplish 
the  second. 

For  the  first-mentioned  puri)ose  a  night  school  is  needed 
in  nearly  every  village;  for  if  it  is  desirable  for  the  day  school 
to  be  near  the  homes  of  the  children,  it  is  even  more  so  for 
the  school  for  boys  and  girls  who  attend  after  their  day's 
work  is  over.  In  the  older  countries  of  the  world,  farmers 
as  a  rule  live  in  villages,  and  not  on  isolated  homesteads  as 
on  the  North  American  continent. 

There  is  a  lesson  in  tht-sc  matters  for  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  The  policy  of  village  settlci>ients  rallier  liian  isolate! 
hi)n»estea<ls  is  well  worth  (•()nsi<krati()n  and  rwommendation  fur 
the  unseltltMl  districts;  ami  even  where  surveys  liave  heen  maiie, 
t!ie  ((uestion  nee<t  not  he  Umked  upon  a.s  finally  settle*!.  Con- 
tent<<l  women.  R<)o<l  ehances  for  the  education  of  tlie  cliildren, 
and  a  reasonal>ly  richly  developed  social  life,  are  in  the  long  run 
of  immensely  more  consctiuence  than  conveniences  for  growing 
crops.  The  place  of  the  latter  is  to  minister  to  the  former.  ^Vhat 
shall  it  profit  a  country  to  he  callfl  the  "granary  of  the  empire," 
if  it  loses  the  soul  of  happy  rural  life.' 

The  elementary  education  given  in  the  evening  schools 
should  be  similar,  to  some  extent,  to  that  given  in  the  day 
school,  and  rural  environment  should  be  its  keynote. 

The  Monnliijht  schooh.  —  Within  r(>cent  years  a  serious 
attempt  has  been  made  to  deal  with  rural  illiteracy.  In 
Rowan,  a  mountainous  and  former  feud  county  of  the 
State  of  Kentucky,  once  famous  only  for  "the  raising  of 
rackets  and  Christmas  trees,"  night  schools  were  adopted 
as  a  rural  institution  in  1911.  An  account  of  this  move- 
ment is  given  in  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,'^  from  which  the  foUowing  particulars 
are  taken. 

The  enterprise  was  due  to  Mrs.  Cora  Wilson  Stewart, 

'  Report  nf  ihr  Royal  rnmmission  on  Tndnstrial  and  Terhniral  Kdu- 
cation.   Oft.iwa. 

'  Illiterary  in  the  United  States,  and  an  Experiment  for  its  Elimination. 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin  No.  iO.   1913. 


m 


^  i'^^ 


"i 

■J 

i- 

1 

. 

>J 

:|i| 


RURAL  SCHOOL  EXTENSION 


115 


superintendent  of  schools  in  the  county.  After  a  careful 
study  of  the  situation,  siie  (h'cided  t(»  open  the  |)uhhc 
sc-h(K)ls  of  the  county  on  moonlight  nights  as  schools  for 
adults.  As  there  was  no  money  available,  she  called  for 
volunteers  and  her  appeal  was  responded  to  hy  all  the 
teachers  in  the  county.  On  Labor  day,  September  4.  the 
teachers  visited  all  the  homes  in  the  county,  cxi)laim-d  the 
I)Ian,  and  announced  the  ojKMiinj,'  of  the  scIukjIs  on  the  next 
evening.  To  the  great  surprise  of  everyone  concerned, 
more  than  HOO  men  and  women  from  eighteen  to  eii^lify- 
six  years  of  age  were  enrolled  the  first  evening.  The  atf  end- 
mce  was  drawn  from  all  classes,  and  about  one  third  of  the 
»opulation  of  the  county  was  enrolled. 

In  referring  to  the  difficulties  of  attend?  nee,  Mrs.  Stew- 
art says :  — 

They  had  all  the  excuses  which  any  ignorant  and  lahorinj? 
pe()i)Ie  might  offer,  —  high  hills,  hridgck-ss  streams,  niggi-cl  roa.is, 
wearim-ss  from  the  day's  hard  toil,  the  sliaiiu-  of  beginning  stu<ly 
late  m  life,  and  all  the  others,  —  hut  they  w<Te  not  seeking  ex- 
cuses. They  were  sincerely  and  earnestly  seeking  knowledge. 
Their  interest,  their  zeal,  and  their  enthusiasm  were  wonderful  to 
witness.  It  was  truly  an  insi)iring  sight  to  see  the.sc  aged  pupils 
heiKfing  over  the  desks  which  their  children  and  grandeliildreii 
ha<l  cHcupie<l  during  the  day.  Their  delight  in  learning,  and  their 
tlelight  in  their  achievements,  exceede<l  any  joy  that  I  have  ever 
witnessed. 

The  forty-five  schools  had  an  average  enrollment  of  al- 
most thirty  pupils,  with  an  average  attendance  of  a^)out 
the  same.  The  studies  taken  up  were  reading,  wTiting, 
arithmetic,  and  spelling.  Brief  <lrills  were  given  in  essen- 
tial facts  relating  to  language,  history,  geogrjiphy,  civics, 
sanitation,  agriculture,  and  horticulture.  The  text  used 
for  reading  was  the  "Rowan  County  School  Messenger," 
edited  by  the  county  superintendent  and  distributed  free. 
It  was  given  a  strong  local  cast  and  dealt  entirely  with 
problems  relating  to  rural  life.  The  results  h.ive  shown 
that  a  few  weeks  of  attendance  have  been  sufficient  to  en- 


M 


m 


116  AGRICrLTlRVL  EDITATION 

al)le  the  adult  puiul  "to  pass  over  the  dark  line  of  illiteracy 
and  to  Hi'[  into  tlu"  class  of  literates." 

During'  the  xcoud  t.rm.  U'M)  pupils  were  enrolled.  Of 
thesi>.  :5()(>  were  unahle  to  read  aiui  write  at  all;  ;5()0  more 
were  those  who  had  altcMided  duriiif,'  the  previous  session; 
and  lOOO  were  men  and  women  of  mea^^Te  education.  The 
schools  were  conducted  two  hours  each  evening  on  four 
evenings  diiring  the  week,  and  the  teachers  were,  as  a  rule, 
the  regular  day-school  teac-hers.  Before  the  oi)ening  of  the 
sec-ond  session  a  moonlight-school-teachers*  institute  was 
held,  and  through  this  the  movement  spread  to  eight  or 
ten  otlier  counties. 

One  of  the  most  important  results  of  the  schools  has 
l)(<en  the  iidluenc-e  whic-h  they  have  exerted  in  bringing 
the  iH'ople  to  a  sympathetic  attitude  toward  education 
in  general.  A  school  trustee  thus  descriljes  the  effect  the 
schools  have  had  in  his  connnunity:  — 

I  liavo  lived  in  tliis  district  for  fifty-five  years,  and  T  never 
saw  any  mkIi  iiitcnst  as  wv  have  lure  now.  The  scIuh)!  used  to 
jn>t  ilni^  aliiim.  ami  iioixxlv  Mrinftl  iiilorcslfd.  We  never  ha<l  a 
f;at!i<Tiii«at  tlu'schonl.aad  iiol.i.dy  tlioiight  of  visiting  the  school. 
AVc  had  iiifilil  school  only  three  weeks,  when  we  got  togetlier 
right.  We  |>ai>ered  tlie  house.  i>nt  in  new  windows,  purehase<l 
new  stove-i)ii)e,  and  eontrihuted  niont'V  an<l  hou^iit  the  winter's 
fuel.  Now  we  have  a  live  Sunday  sciiool.  jtrayer  meeting  cjnce 
each  w(H-k.  and  preaching  twiee  a  month.  People  of  all  denomina- 
tions in  the  district  mivt  and  worshii>  together,  aged  people  come 
regularly,  and  even  peoi>le  from  the  ailjoining  county  are  hegin- 
ning  to  come  to  our  little  red  scIukiI  hou.se. 

What  sluill  he  faiicjiif  iti  crenhuj  schools.  — Jn  tlie  ojK'n 
count ly  and  in  scattered  di>tricts  it  may  iu)l  Ik-  jtossiltle  to 
(lcvch)i»  evening  schools  for  strictly  vocational  ])un)oses; 
l)ut  there  are  nuiny  villages  and  small  towns  .situated  in  the 
mid>t  of  agricultural  districts,  where  they  are  an  urgent 
nece^>ity.  In  such  schools,  suhjects  that  are  vital  to  agri- 
culture shouhl  he  taught,  and  elementar>-  suhjcnts  such  as 
reading,  writing,  and  siK-lling,  will  have  only  an  incidental 


lURAL   SCHOOL   EXTEXSIOX 


117 


J 


|)liic('.  Consolidatfd  s<-1i<m)Is  have  a  fiiiictioii  to  jM-rfurm 
Ikto  which  has  not  yrt  entorc<i  into  thoir  calnilations. 
IVniii  tlie  stafs  of  thfso  schools  and  in  th»^  surroiindiiiK 
vilhi^cs  it  shouhi  not  he  ditficuit  t(.  find  teachers  of  wood- 
work, domestic  science,  poullrj-kcepin^,  hind-uicasnrc- 
nicnt,  and  general  a;rricultural  subjects.  As  the  aim  would 
he  to  produce  effective  workers,  tlie  courses  shoiihl  he 
systematized  and  should  continue  for  a  i)eriod  of  at  least 
three  years. 

In  rural  evening  schools  it  is  not  generally  i)ossi])le  to 
provide  elementarj-  and  advanced  education  at  the  same 
time.  The  idea  of  an  elementarj'  course  one  year  and  an 
advanced  course  the  following  year  is  als<j  inii)racticahle. 
The  curriculum  must  l)e  such  that  the  puj)!!  can  enter  in 
any  year.  I'nd-r  these  circumstances,  what  has  heen  called 
the  "cyclic"  princij)le  must  l)e  adopted.  For  exam[)le,  a 
three-years'  course  in  practical  arithmetic  might  he  ar- 
ranged, in  which  the  second-year  work  is  not  more  difficult 
tlian  the  first,  or  the  tliird  than  the  second,  a  different 
hranch  of  the  sul.ject  Itelng  taken  each  year,  so  that  the 
pupil  can  hegiii  the  course  with  etpial  advantage  in  any 
year,  and  end  it  the  third  year  after.  In  otlier  suhjects, 
also,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  arranging  cyclic  tliree-year 
courses. 

In  .such  subjects  as  gardening,  wofxlwork,  needlework, 
and  domestic  science,  where  elementary  and  advanced 
pupils  can  work  together,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  classes 
should  not  he  graded.  In  arranging  the  work  for  any  jiar- 
ticular  school  it  is  necessary  to  know  what  practical  sub- 
jects are  needed  in  the  district,  and  then  to  coordinate 
with  these  the  fundamental  sul>jects  which  embody  the 
principles  underlying  the  practice;  then  there  should  be 
added  such  general  and  recreative  subjects  as  will  widen 
the  outlook  of  the  pupil  and  augment  the  intellectual  value 
of  the  whole  curriculum. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  a  course  that  might  be 


>    I] 


118 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


arran«o«l  for  ii  school  meeting  twice  a  week  during  the  win- 
ter for  two  hours  each  eveiiiTif^:  on  one  ev«'nin(j  arithmetic 
and  drawing  niij^ht  he  tau^^lit;  on  the  other,  wocniwork  and 
choral  music.  On  four  of  Uie  evenings  <iurinR  the  winter 
tlie  reguhir  work  might  be  interrupted  hy  a  course  on  seed- 
judging  and  testing,  given  by  the  agricultural  teacher  from 
the  nearest  high  s<h(K)l.  When  the  evenings  are  light 
enough,  the  indoor  work  might  give  ])lace  to  land-measure- 
ment and  surveying  out-of-doors,  or  to  practical  gardening. 
A  second  winter  the  fundamental  subjects  taught  might  be 
arithmetic,  rural  science,  secondary  subjects,  rural  handi- 
craft, and  literature. 

Where  it  is  not  advisable  for  girls  to  attend  in  the  even- 
ings, it  might  be  possible  to  hold  a  household-science  class 
for  them  in  the  afternoon,  in  v.hich  case  hou.sehold  arith- 
metic- should  be  included  as  ])art  of  the  regular  curricu'um. 
Their  regular  work  might  l)e  interrupted  by  a  cours<'  of  four 
lesscms  on  poult ry-kcH'i)ing,  or  a  course  of  dairying  by  a 
jH'rii)atetic  teacher.  The  agricultural  colleges  and  .schools 
can  perform  a  great  service  here  by  jjroviding  the  necessary 
instructors. 

Much  progress  has  l)een  made  in  agricultural  education 
and  many  organizations  exist  to  further  it.  Until  within 
recent  years,  the  efforts  have  l)een  concerned  largely  with 
the  agricultural  college.  Later  came  the  develojimeiit  of 
the  agricultural  courses  in  the  high  .schools  and  the  s])ecial 
agricultural  .schools,  and  more  recently  the  movement  for 
the  teaching  of  agricidture  in  the  elementary  school.  These 
provisions,  however,  leave  out  of  consideration  the  boy  and 
the  girl  who  leave  the  district  school  at  fourteen  years  of 
age  or  younger,  and  who  will  dis-  tmtinue  study  entirely 
uiilc-is  special  j)rovision  is  nuide  for  their  pecuUar  nee<ls. 
Tlie-ic  ])crsons  should  receive  assistance  through  some 
sucii  means  as  above  outlined,  until  pul)lit  o])inion  is  ri])e 
for  comi)uIsory  education  up  to  the  age  of  eighteen  years. 


■i^ii^sast. 


fi- ,•!'>.:, 


CHAPTER  VIII 


SECONDARY    EDUCATION    IN    AGRICULTURE 

It  is  now  universally  admitted  that  no  scheme  of  educa- 
tion is  complete  without  an  efficient  system  of  hi^h  schools 
in  which  the  e<lucation  l>e^'un  in  the  primary  sch(H)Is  may 
he  continued.  If  this  Ik?  true  of  the  ordinarj'  academic 
work,  it  is  even  more  so  of  agricultural  education.  .\  few 
years  ago  the  rural  high  scIkm)I  was  simply  a  city  high 
school  set  down  in  the  countrj',  and  it  .struggled  to  realize 
educational  ideals  that  had  little  in  common  with  rural  life. 
It  was  long  thought  that  special  education  for  the  farmer 
was  unnecessary.  Owing  to  changed  conditions,  however, 
to  the  gradual  adoption  of  more  scientific  methods  of  farm- 
ing, the  necessity  for  increasing  jjroduction  to  keep  pace 
with  an  ever-growing  jjopulation,  and  the  competition  to 
which  the  farmer  is  subjected,  its  necessity  is  becoming 
more  clearly  seen. 

Many  opponents  of  high-school  education  are  willing  to 
admit  that  higher  education  may  make  the  Ixjy  a  l)etter 
man,  but  they  contend  that  it  will  not  in  any  way  enable 
him  to  farm  more  profitably.  Nevertheless,  higher  educa- 
tion has  a  direct  monetary  value  when  a])plied  to  industry, 
including  agriculture.  This  is  shown  by  investigations  of 
the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell 
L'niversity. 

MONETARY    VALIK   OF   EDUCATION    IN    AGRICCLTTTRE ' 

The  investigations  were  conducted   in   certain   town- 

shijjs  in  the  State  of  New  York.   The  labor  incomes  of  all 

the  faruuTs  in  the  selected  lowii^iijjs  were  secured,  the 

labor  income  being  the  amount  each  farmer  received  f.  ir 

'  National  Education  Association.   Annual  Procceditig.i,  IIMO. 


N 


■w 


I'.'O 


AGRin  LTIRAL  EDICATION 


his  lahor  after  mct'linj?  all  rxjH-iisi's,  iiulinliiij;  five  |)or  cent 
interest  on  Ills  investment.  Hy  suhtraetiii^  the  business  ex- 
IH'MsesfnMU  the  reeeijits,  and  liy  niakin;^«(>rre«tions  forany 
(■l!an;;es  in  inventurj'.  what  is  called  the  farm  income  was 
si'ciired.  As  the  farmer  is  an  employer  as  well  as  an  em- 
jdoyee,  he  ns<'s  a  certain  amount  t>f  capital;  and  in  order 
to  sec  what  the  farm  really  made,  five  \)er  cent  interest  on 
tills  capital  was  deducttnl.  In  these  investigations,  if  more 
than  one  memlKT  of  the  family  worked,  the  value  of  this 
additional  unpaid  lahor  was  deducted.  The  amount  the 
farmer  ma<Ie,  as  a  result  of  his  own  labor,  was  thus  obtained. 
The  principal  pun)<>se  of  the  Inves  ■  ition  was  to  study 
the  effects  of  methods  of  farming,  cajiital,  area,  equipment, 
and  other  factors,  on  profits.  In  securing  data  for  this 
pur])ose,  the  farmer  was  asked  to  state  the  highest  school 
he  had  attended.  A  comi)ilation  of  the  results  in  four  town- 
ships shows  that  04*2  attended  district  schools  only,  iiti 
attended  high  s<'hcK)ls,  and  14  attended  colleges  or  univer- 
.sities.  Figures  on  which  it  was  possible  to  obtain  the  labor 
income  were  obtained  from  57'.^  of  these  men.  The  .'5!)8  who 
had  attended  district  schools  only  made  an  average  labor 
income  of  $iilS;  165  who  had  attendetl  high  .school  made 
$()'i'i;  and  10  who  had  attended  a  college  or  university 
made  an  average  lalK)r  income  of  $8 17. 

The  alxive  figures  are  not  final,  as  it  is  quite  possible  that 

the  high-s<hool  men  had  better  farming  opp<irtunities.   In 

order  to  eliminate  this  ix)ssil)ilily,  the  farms  were  arranged 

in  eijual  capital  groups  and  the  results  appear  as  follows:  — 

...  . .  Arerage  labor  ineome  of 


Capital             ""^ 

-rai 
•Uh 

dintrici  nchixJ  < 

I)  jiirmfra 
ducal  ion 

farmem  ii-ith  more  than 
iliMrict  school  education 

$i(KK)  unci  iindiT 

$1H7 

|«86 

$JiMU  t(.$KMH» 

$til 

%ns 

$KK11  t.)$(!(MK) 

$.S9S 

$466 

$ti(K)l  to  $K000 

$3U5 

$709 

$S(H)1  to  $10,000 

$618 

$,-!>« 

$10,0(11  f<.  $15,000 

$5!U 

$l(Wl 

()vt'r$I5,U00 

$1054 

$lli70 

SECONDARY    EDITATIOX    IN    AC.Rirci.TrUE     121 

It  w  "I  thus  lw>  s(«fii  that  ill  ovrr>  •  7011  p  of  fiiriii>  [In-  uu-ii 
Willi  Ih;'  In-ttcr  rducaliuri  swn-  al.lt'  to  us*-  llu-ir  <;t|.ital 
more  dhcifiiliy,  Tiu-  li-unvs  s!i.,«  that  fli<-  lu.-ri  «lu.  at- 
tondc'd  hi^li  sc-hool  made  11  lalxjr  iiicotiu>  of  !*;{(it  a  year 
f,'roatcr  than  those  who  attcrid«-d  distrirf  ^hool  mmIv.  A 
hii,'h-s<-hool  I'diicatiori,  to  tlicso  riifii.  i>  thus  prov«>d  to  I.0 
Worth  more  than  an  endowment  of  i^lUmi  in  live  per  cetit 
bonds.  It  may  l)e  arj,'ued  Uiat  the  men  who  attended  hi_'h 
.seh(3ol  had  more  native  ability  and  iiitejiii^'crirc  to  st.irt 
with  than  those  who  atf'^nded  t'  •  distn.  t  school  only;  but 
the  investigators  declare  that  iiese  dilForeiKjes  are  not 
f^reat. 

The  hij^h  schools  which  the  majority  of  these  men  al- 
tendiNJ  were  the  usual  ;  ulemic  institutions.  If  the  educa- 
tion there  given  could  ^»  -nprove  their  earning  .aparity,  it 
seems  quite  fair  to  assume  that  had  tli<'ir  education  Imhti 
along  agricultMral  lines  the  results  would  have  Ikh-mi  still 
greater. 

TUB   TYPH   OK    HIGH    SCHOOL   To    HR    DmKI,f)PKI) 

Admitting,  then,  that  se<(.tidarj'  e«lueafion  in  agricul- 
ture is  necessary,  the  qu .stion  now  is,  what  form  shall  it 
take.  Tliis  subject  has  given  rise  to  much  di.scussi<m.  One 
side  contends  that  the  present  high  schools  can  be  full^ 
adapted  for  the  purpose  required,  and  that  it  is  neither 
nwessary  nor  desirable  to  establish  si)ecial  schools.  The 
other  side  argues,  just  as  strongly,  that  the  work  can  never 
]k'  .satisfactorily  done  in  the  present  tj-pe  of  high  .school, 
and  the  special  agricultural  schools  arc  needed  for  this 
pur{)ose. 

ADVAXTAGIS  OF   KXI.STI.NO    HIGH    SCHOOL-S 

The  advocates  of  the  existing  high  .s<-1uk)Is  contend  that 
the  wiser  course  would  l)e  to  correlate  agricultural  instruc- 
tion with  the  work  that  is  now  l>eing  done,  and  make  it  aa 
integral  part  of  the  educational  system  now  in  vogue.  If 


Hi 


AdUicn/rruAL  edication 


tliis  can  hr  <lon«\  then-  is  saved  all  I  hat  is  Iwsl  iti  the  «.1<1 
and  advaiila-f  lakni  of  what  is  (i(>iral)lc  in  the  lu-w. 

'Ih.'  aru'miuMits  a;;aiii-«l  ih.-  ^iHM-ial  agricultural  sch(K)l 
ap|M'ar  to  \n'  as  f(»llo\v.>; 

1.  It  has  taken  <eiitiirie>-  toestat.lish  the  s(h<K)ls  wo  now 
ha\e.  With  a  lillle  rea<ljust  ineiil  th«y  will  he  al.h' lodo  the 
work  re(|uired  for  a^;riellltu^e.  To  «'stal)li.sh  new  mIiooIs 
anil  refuse  to  utilize  tiie  old.  would  he  to  throw  away  the 
experienee  that  has  hecn  gained  and  eause  a  needless  waste 
of  |)ulili<-  funds. 

)i.  Sei)arate  s(  IkkiIs  will  never  ho  s<i  j^ootl.  No  soIuh)!  de- 
signed to  niinister  to  u  single  class  of  jH>ople  and  to  a  single 
indiistrj'  will  1k'  so  well  e(|uii)j)od  in  the  fundamental  arts 
und  s«ien«es  as  one  designed  to  minister  hroadly  to  a  va- 
riety of  interests.  What  it  gains  in  simi)li<ity  and  oflieieney 
in  doing  one  thing  is  more  than  offset  hy  the  loss  in  hreadth 
and  variety  of  training  and  in  the  satisfaction  of  the  di- 
versify of  needs. 

a.  Separate  schools  will  tend  strongly  to  jK-asantize  the 
farnuT.  To  sei)arate  any  one  class  of  i)<'o|)lc  from  the  com- 
mon mass,  and  to  echicate  it  hy  itself  and  solely  for  one 
puriM)so.  is  to  make  it  narrower  and  more  higottnl  goncra- 
tio:;  hy  generation. 

4.  To  educate  the  children  of  difTeront  classes  separately 
operates  to  ])revent  that  n-tural  flow  of  individuals  from 
one  class  to  another  whicii  is  so  nmch  to  \tc  desired,  hotli 
from  the  scnial  and  from  the  individual  standjHiint.  If  the 
children  of  farmers  are  put  into  .schools  where  a;,Ticulture 
only  is  taught,  many  a  good  husiness  or  i)rofessional  man 
will  he  spoiled  to  nmke  an  indifferent  farmer.  lioys  do  not 
necessarily  inherit  or  develop  a  tendency  "owards  their 
father's  profession.  There  is  a  difference  hetween  educat- 
ing through  environment  and  educating  without  environ- 
ment. Many  a  city  hoy  has  the  instinct  to  got  hack  to 
nature.  The  fact  that  a  girl  was  h<  v.i  in  du  country  is  no 
reason  why  she  should  become  a  'armor's  wife,  nor  is  the 


SECONDARY    EDKATION    IN   AGUirrLTrUE     123 


f;i(t  fli.it  slu'  was  horn  in  the  city  a  rrason  wJiy  she  slioiiM 
in»t.  Kduciit*'  all  flu"  pupils  ti>t;«>tlHT  in  one  tyjH-  of  mIkmiI. 
with  a  <iirri(iiliini  varied  ••noiif^h  to  (it  for  nion-  than  on" 
«M'('iipali(>n  and  nion*  tlian  one  mode  of  life,  and  a  man 
will  then  Im-  free  t«>  folhtw  the  (K-cupation  of  his  father,  or 
to  ehanp*.  as  he  i)leaM's. 

.V  S«'condar>'  schools  devoted  to  apricnlture  would,  of 
necessity,  draw  on  so  iuik  h  lerritorj-  as  to  rccniire  the  stml- 
eiit  to  live  away  from  home.  The  prohlem  of  secondan" 
education  is  verj-  larp-ly  the  prohlem  of  the  foiirteen-year- 
«)ld  child,  anil  we  should  never  Ik"  satisfie<l  till  every  farm- 
hoy  and  ii'irl  may  po  to  the  nearest  hiph  .sch(H)l  and  there 
find  instruction,  not  only  in  apriculture.  hut  in  the  other 
industries  and  professions  which  concern  the  community. 

(J.  .v;rri<ullure  not  only  ne(>ds  contact  with  other  indus- 
tries, hut  tho.sc  industries  need  contact  with  agriculture; 
and  this  mutual  contact  pivesamuch  hroader  outlook  to 
all  the  industries. 

7.  To  estahlish  agricultural  hiph  school-,  would  materi- 
ally hinder  the  development  of  the  existing  high  .s«hoo|s, 
and  would  check  their  extension  into  rural  districts  where 
they  are  urgently  needed. 

These  are  the  main  arguments  put  forward  hy  Dean 
Davenport;  and  while  for  the  moment  not  advcnating  the 
esta')lishment  of  separate  agricultural  schools,  it  would 
.seem  that  they  are  hased  largely  on  the  assumption  that 
agricultural  high  schools  would  content  themselves  with 
a  curriculum  narrowed  down  to  the  hare  teaching  of  agri- 
culture and  would  ignore  the  related  sciences,  art,  and  lit- 
erature. 


M 


i  .  1 

Kj 

!'ll 


AUVANT.\GHS    OF    SKI'AH ATE    AGRICULTfHAL    limH    S(  HOOKS 

'i'he  ahove  arguments  hav  >  not  met  with  universal  ac- 
ceptance. The  fourth  annual  rejM)rtof  the  Carnegie  Foun- 
dation for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  dealing  with  sec- 
ondary schools,  saj's :  — 


124 


AGRICILTITIAL  EDUCATION 


The  insertion  of  agrinilturi'  into  th«'  nirriculiim  of  every 
secoiiilary  si-IkmiI  iti  the  country  would  not  make  any  (liffcn-iice 
in  tlicir  output  of  farmers,  'riiesr  .seh(M)l.s  are  not  tra<ie  seli(K)Is. 
'I'liey  are  ixiteiided,  au<l  lliey  slujuld  remain,  selu)ols  for  the  gen- 
eral training  of  hoys  and  girls  for  all  eallings.  Agrieulture,  |)ut 
info  one  of  tliese  seiio(>:s  as  a  study,  will  remain,  as  it  ought  to  re- 
main, a  study  for  general  training  and  not  a  mean.s  of  trade  in- 
struction. We  have  had  in  the  la,-,t  twenty  years  a  most  striking 
exanii)Ie  of  what  will  hapjien  iu  sui  h  a  <a,se.  Twtiity-five  years 
ago,  when  manual  training  was  intrcMluced  into  the  secondary 
schools,  it  wa.s  the  expectation  of  many  that  this  would  lead  to  a 
large  group  of  well-trained  mechanic,-..  It  has  had  no  such  result. 
Mainial  training  ha.s  remainc<l  a  fruitful  study,  but  its  {)uri)ose 
has  been  purely  pedagogic. 

The  advocates  of  the  special  agricultural  high  .scho<>ls  do 
not  believe  that  the  course  of  study  need  he  whittled  down 
to  the  extent  that  they  shall  1)e  less  cultural  or  less  truly 
educational  than  the  existinj^  hij^h-school  courses.  It  is 
l)c!ieve<l  that  better  courses  than  arc  usually  offered  in 
schools  attended  by  pupils  from  rural  districts  can  he 
worked  out  for  these  special  schools,  courses  which  con- 
tain all  that  is  essential  in  the  old  and,  in  atldition.  provide 
for  training  along  distinctly  agricultural  lines. 

A  large  part  of  the  countrj-  youth  who  now  attend  high 
schools  not  only  go  away  from  home,  but  are  not  under 
faculty  control  outside  of  school  hours.  Many  of  them  go 
on  the  train  and  return  at  night.  Many  stay  for  the  week 
and  return  home  on  Friday  for  the  week-end.  Any  one 
who  is  in  the  habit  of  traveling  on  local  trains  carrj'ing 
high-school  pupils  to  and  from  scho<il  is  not,  as  a  rule, 
favorably  impressed  with  their  lichavior. 

If  it  were  proposed  to  establish  s))ecial  schools  to  which 
the  farmer  would  lie  forced  to  send  his  children,  they  might, 
perhaps,  tend  to  jK\asantize  the  farmer;  but  tiiis  is  not  the 
case.  Where  special  schools  have  been  established,  the 
farm  boy  is  still  able  to  make  his  choice  between  them  and 
the  ordinary  high  school,  just  as  in  the  cities  the  boy  is  able 
to  choose  between  the  tlu-ee  tyjMJS  of  school  generally  eslab- 


SECONDARY   EDUCATION    IN   AGRICULTrUE     li5 


lishcd.  The  spocij-l  agricultural  school  simply  offers  the 
country  hoy,  w'  •;  s  already  decided  that  he  will  he  a 
farmer,  and  w;  entitled  to  preparation   therefor,  a 

hetter  opjjortur  >  prepare  for  his  profession  than  the 

pul)iic  high  school  (   I'ers. 

The  arguments  for,  and  the  pur])ose3  of,  the  special 
schools  may  Ijc  sunuuarized  as  follows:  — 

1.  To  stimulate  the  general  introduction  of  agriculture 
into  the  ordinary  higli  school,  and  in  a  general  way  to  set 
the  pace  for  and  give  permanence  to  secondary  education 
in  apiculture. 

2.  To  aid  in  the  preparation  of  rural  school-teachers. 
This  is  accomplished  in  a  definite  way  in  Wisconsin  and 
other  states  hy  connecting  teachers'  training  classes  with 
the  county  schools  of  agriculture. 

3.  To  serve  as  links  in  the  chain  of  separate  institutions 
seeking  to  train  boys  for  farm  life.  The  course  of  study 
should  include  instruction  in  English,  mathematics,  chem- 
istry, and  botany. 

4.  To  serve  as  schools  to  which  boys,  who  have  chosen 
to  become  farmers,  may  elect  to  go  for  more  thorough  and 
efficient  preparation  for  their  life-work  than  the  ordinary 
high  school  can  give. 

5.  To  relieve  the  agricultural  colleges  of  much  of  the 
secondary  and  sliort-course  work  that  has  now  to  be  done 
by  them. 

6.  To  .serve  the  local  farming  community  more  inti- 
mately than  the  agricultural  coUegt'  can. 

7.  Su<'h  s<-hools  should  be  limited  in  nund>er  and  should 
serve  large  areas,  dei)ending  on  the  density  of  the  jxtpula- 
tion. 

8.  The  curricula  should  be  varied  according  to  the  pre- 
dominant industry'.  The  schools  should  be  kept  strictly 
secondary  in  grade,  avoiding  on  the  one  hand  the  work  of 
the  elementary  school,  an('  on  the  other  that  of  the  agri- 
cultural college. 


Hi 


r' 

.i 

i 


it! 


n 


126 


AGRICULTUILyL  EDUCATION 


BOTH   TYPES   OK  HC'HOOLS   ARE   NEEDED 

The  ar^jutiierits  of  IxAh  sides  havinj?  been  fairly  stated, 
we  now  have  to  eonsider  which  should  prevail.  As  is  to 
Ik-  t'xi)e(tcd,  tlicre  is  merit  in  the  arguments  of  both  con- 
testants, and  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  seems  to  lie  along 
a  middle  i)ath.  Enlarge  the  work  of  the  i)resent  high  schools 
to  teach  agricultural  subjects,  and  establish  sjjecial  agri- 
cultural  schools  to  cover  large  areas,  where  agriculture  and 
<lomcstic  science  may  l)e  taught,  together  with  such  aca- 
demic subjects  as  are  necessarj*.  The  fiehl  of  agricultural 
education  is  so  large,  the  subjects  to  l>e  covered  so  numer- 
ous, the  need  for  it  so  great,  and  the  roads  by  which  we 
may  reach  the  same  goal  so  many,  that  there  is  surely  room 
for  schools  of  the  two  tj'j)es.  Those  who  have  the  real  in- 
terests of  the  farming  population  at  heart,  and  who  are 
anxious  that  agricultural  education  shall  become  effective, 
must  settle  their  differences,  sink  their  i)rejudices.  and 
work  harmoniously  together  to  bring  about  the  desired  re- 
sults. 

There  are  scores  of  examples  which  could  be  cited  to 
pro\e  that  agricultural  education  can  be  effectively  in- 
t'orj)orated  in  the  existing  high  schools.  It  is  quite  practi- 
cable, because  it  has  lieen  widely  done,  to  articulate  an 
agricultural  course  of  high-school  grade  with  the  i)resent 
high-school  schedule,  and  to  make  this  course  satisfac- 
tory' for  the  purjwses  of  general  training  as  well  as  for 
efficient  instruction  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  agricul- 
ture. 

It  is  well  to  admit,  at  the  out.set,  that  this  -.vork  cannot 
1k'  (lone  in  the  rural  higti  school  as  at  present  organized; 
but  on  ever>-  hand  comes  the  demand  that  these  schools 
shall  be  reorganized.  Before  agriculture  can  l)e  effectively 
introduced  into  any  high  school,  revolutionarj'  changes  in 
spirit  and  i)urjH)se  will  1m>  necessary.  The  first  need  is  a 
change  of  aim.    The  schools  must  face  the  actual  needs  of 


SECONDARY   EDICATION   IN    AGRICILTIUE     W7 

life  as  found  on  the  farm  and  in  tlie  home.  They  must  not 
lost"  sifjht  of  eollejje  preparation,  hut  neither  must  they 
make  that  the  special  aim  of  their  existence.  Tliis  inipHes 
by  no  means  that  ail  instruction  shall  he  what  at  present  is 
known  as  vcx-ational,  —  the  physical,  cultural,  and  social 
needs  are  facts  of  life  and  cannot  Ik*  ignored;  hut  it  does 
mean  that  the  educational  value  of  every  suhjixt  on  the 
proj^ram  must  be  a.ssessed,  that  ';very  detail  of  organiza- 
tion and  method  must  l>e  systematized,  and  that  we  must 
conduct  our  schools  in  such  a  wj>  •  as  will  .seiure  the  maxi- 
mum of  useful  knowledge,  .skill,  and  jxjv.'t,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  highest  character, 

The  high  schools  in  small  towns  in  rural  districts  need 
agriculture  to  save  them,  prohahly  as  nmch  as  farm  hoys 
need  the  instruction.  As  at  present  organized,  secondary 
education  has  helj)ed  the  hoy  out  of  farming  rather  than 
hcliK'ii  him  into  it.  The  school  should  constantly  i)ut  hack 
into  the  cojumunity  as  permanent  residents  the  l)est  of  each 
generation,  if  it  is  to  justify  its  own  existence  and  the  taxa- 
tion imposed  for  its  maintenance.  In  many  instances,  rural 
.secondary  schools  have  been  a  source  of  weakne.ss  rather 
tli.in  of  strength  to  the  conunutiilies  supporting  them. 
Tliey  have  been  the  direct  means  of  taking  out  of  the 
country'  the  manhood  and  womanhood  .so  necessarj*  to 
the  welfare  and  progress  of  the  country-  ide. 


.:^i 


Il[^ 


fll 


READJUSTMENT  OF  TIIK  COIR.SE  OF  STUDY 
With  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  high  school, 
all  the  courses  will  ne>_d  readjustment.  j)articular!y  those 
in  j)hy.sics,  chemistrs',  hutaiiy,  and  zo<)lo^y  These  shuuid 
ho  so  shaiH'd  as  to  forin  an  ap])nn)riate  introduction  to 
the  more  formal  and  practical  instruction  in  the  diiTerent 
liranches  of  agriculture.  Whether  this  .s<ience  shall  i*e 
taiifjht  by  the  teacher  of  science  or  by  the  teacher  of  agri- 
cultu.e,  has  caused  some  controversy.  If  the  agricultural 
teacher  in  the  high  school  has  been  p.operly  trained  and  is 


Its 


AGRICILTURAL  EDUCATION 


fully  qualified  for  the  work,  it  will  he  easy  for  him  to  take  a 
scientific  view  of  the  jjractical  work  to  he  done. 

It  is  bcconiinj^  more  and  more  evident  that  science  in  its 
pure  form  cannot  Ik'  tauglit  very  successfully  to  secondary 
students,  (^hildren  of  the  adolescent  sta^e  of  development 
ai)i)arently  respond  much  more  .satisfactorily  to  that  scien- 
tific teaching  which  begins  with  ajjplications  and  concrete 
ca.ses,  and  then  merges  into  generalizations,  principles,  and 
laws.  This  is  the  liistoric  order  in  the  evolution  of  scientific 
knowledge,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  in  the  main  it  is 
the  true  i)edagogic  order  also. 

The  queMion  of  irxihooks.  —  One  of  the  most  serious  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  bringing  the  rural  secondary  school 
into  clo.se  touch  -vith  the  needs  of  rural  life  is  the  present 
organization  of  textbooks.  A  textbook  in  physics,  written 
to  enable  the  pujfils  to  jkiss  the  examination  of  a  .scientific 
school,  is  often  adopted  for  use  in  rural  districts,  and  the 
problems  are  usually  inno<ent  of  any  connc<tion  with  hx^al 
requirements.  The  princii)les  underlying  the  sul>ject  of 
physics  are  universal,  yet  they  can  1k>  given  a  hnal  coloring 
and  made  efrcclivc  tlirough  j)roblems  relating  to  the  farm. 
Biology-,  as  usually  treated  in  the  texts,  consists  of  nothing 
more  than  a  ela.ssification  and  descrijjtion  of  the  various 
forms  of  animal  an<l  plaiit  life.  A  treatment  of  the  sul)ject 
is  needed  which  shows  the  ap[)lication  of  its  principles  to 
the  farm. 

The  principles  of  botany  should  find  application  in  the 
care,  selection, and  cultivation  of  plants  with  regard  to  their 
CHDiiomic  value.  ZoiilogA-  should  be  made  manifest  through 
the  study  of  the  forms  of  animal  life  that  are  heljjful  or 
injiiridus  to  tlie  farmer.  \  text  book  in  chemi.str\'  for  rural 
high  s(li(K)ls  ought  to  be  j)re])arc(l  to  show  the  a])plieations 
ofchemistrvto  various  iihas<'s  of  agriculture.  Tliei)roblen\s 
of  meclianics  find  their  exemplification  in  farm  buildings 
and  farm  machinerj",  and  tlnse  should  be  used  largely  for 
purposes  of  illuslralion  and  denu>nstralion. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION   IN  AGRICULTURE    liO 


In  most  rural  high  scliools  the  commercial  course  is  a 
popular  oiip,  and  thousands  of  rural-s<liool  i)ui)ils  arc  tak- 
inj;  this  course  and  dcahii^  with  problems  that  may  have 
little  concern  will,  rural  life  Many  of  these  students  are 
intimately  connected  with  farm  affairs  and  could  greatly 
assist  in  systematiziufr  the  :arm  accounts  if  their  attention 
were  so  directed.  ()f  course,  the  principles  of  bookkeeping 
are  apphcable  to  any  business,  liut  the  bookkeeping  that  is 
taught  in  the  rur,.'  high  scIhkjI  should  Ije  closely  related  to 
the  chief  business  of  the  coi    luunit    . 


m 


THE   MODIFIED   COURSE   OF   STUDY 

Thecommitteeof  til  National  Education  Association  on 
Industrial  Educat  >n  for  Rural  <  'ommunities  recommended 
that,  "in  the  townshij)  or  oner  istinctively  rural  high 
school,  and  'n  the  village  high  school  attended  by  a  con- 
siderable number  of  pupils  from  the  country,  a  modification 
of  courses  of  study  should  Ix*  made  which  shall  provide  for 
the  introduction  of  work  especially  in  the  elements  of  agri- 
culture and  dcmiestic  science  and  such  further  lines  of  in- 
dustrial edui  ation  as  local  conditions  may  make  feasible." 
Throughout  the  country  there  are  a  large  number  of  high 
schools  to  which  this  modification  could  Ix?  applied  benefi- 
cially. It  is  highly  gratifying  to  note  that  courses  of  study 
in  many  places  are  Iwing  modified  along  the  lines  suggested. 
In  the  towns  and  cities  industrial  training  is  l>eing  given  a 
prominent  place,  and  in  the  countrj-  agriculture  is  coming 
to  its  own. 

Until  within  recent  years  the  avowed  purpose  of  the  high 
.school  was  to  prepare  for  college,  and  there  is  a  decided 
danger  that  these  new  courses  may  f>e  made  preparatory 
courses  for  admi.ssion  to  the  agricultural  college  .  If  this  be 
d()n«',  they  will  be  rejjeating  the  blunder  of  the  academic 
high  schools  and  failing  to  accomplish  the  obje<t  intended. 
The  purpose  of  these  courses  may  be  saifl  to  be  the  provisiuu 
oi  a  broad  general  training  which  will  enable  the  boy  and  the 


ft  I 


111 
t 

t 

i 
I 

I 

H 

i      I 

I  I 

Mi 


m 


'T^jg?ij.t  - '^  Tvyr^ 


^i^ 


"-■_,%"  ^f^7.X^-  i. 


^^^'S^gV??-^^-.- 


-'^'isjgs: 


ISO 


AGRICIXTUILNX  EDUCATION 


girl  to  proceed  directly  from  the  school  and  take  an  active 
part  in  the  industries  of  the  community.  The  secondary 
course  should  l)e  complete  in  itself  and  not  a  mere  stepping 
stone  to  higher  tnlucation.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
work  of  these  sch(M)ls  shall  not  U-  arlirulattHl  with  the  work 
of  the  colleges,  but  it  docs  mean  that  they  shall  direct  their 
work  primarily  to  the  active  needs  of  the  districts  ui  which 
the  sch(M)ls  are  situated,  and  be  prepared  to  render  im- 
mediate community  service. 

TUB   IIBOUGANIZATION   OF   TIIK    KMSTING    IIIOU   StUOOL 
TWO   RXAMTLiiS 

In  order  to  show  that  the  problem  of  reorganizing  the  ex- 
isting high  school  is  within  tlie  sphere  of  practicality,  it  will 
be  pertinent  to  consider  a  typical  instance  of  such  a  re- 
organization, in  Colebrook  .\cademy.  A  recent  bulletin  of 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  gives  an  account  of 
the  methods  employed,  and  from  that  account  the  follow- 
ing particulars  have  been  adapted.' 

Colebrook  Academy.  —  Colebrook  Academy  is  situated  in 
the  town  of  Colebrook,  in  the  extreme  norlhern  part  of 
New  Hampshire.  The  population  of  the  town  is  about 
iJCMM).  In  IHlVi,  when  the  school  was  established,  it  received 
a  grant  of  land  from  the  State.  For  a  time  it  was  conducted 
as  a  private  institution;  but  it  had  no  endowment  and  it 
soon  became  a  school  entirely  supported  by  public  taxes. 
It  retainetl  its  original  name  but  became  a  public  liigh 
school  of  the  usual  academic  type. 

The  school  district  comprises  only  part  of  the  town,  and 
has  a  iM)i)ulation  of  about  I'-.iOO.  Until  1!)1(),  the  scliool 
niainlained  the  traditional  college-preparatory  English 
courses.  In  that  year  it  was  decided  to  reorganize  on  a  new 
basis,  with  a  view  to  provide  a  more  useful  education  for 
the  country  boys  and  girls.   .\  new  building  was  erected 

'  Tlu>  Rcii()justtiiiiil  i)f  11  Uuriil  lli«li  Siliool  to  the  Nt-ed*  <if  llie  Coui- 
iiiimliv.    I  iiiliil  Slatis  Burt-au  of  Kducaliou.    Uullctin  iO.    19li. 


^^'--'.-r^rir^T^r^Tr:  ^1 


~^^\ 


t  t 


iii: 


i 


>    :i 
I. 


m^m 


SECONDARY   EDUCATION   IN    AGIUCILTIIIE     131 


and  a  ru'W  profjrarii  of  studies  laid  out  aloiiji  nuMlcrii  lines, 
cnnsistinjj  of  colh-j^'r-iin'iiaratorj',  coiuintTcial,  a^ritulhiral, 
and  dotnestic  arts  courses  of  study. 

Tlic  i)uri><>'«'  of  tlio  now  projjratn  is  oxi)rcs.sod  hy  Stale 
Su|H'rinli'ndrnt  Morrison  in  those  words:  — 

It  oii^lit  to  h<'  l)<)rn('  in  niirxi  that  tin-  Itjjitiniatc  fninxwo  of 
Hurli  lii^li-s(-li<H)l  coursi's  as  tills  is  not  primarily  to  inakt-  ^imkI 
farnuTs,  skilli-d  nat-haiiit-s,  or  pruft-ssional  liousckofpt-rs.  'I'licir 
primary  legitimate  oltjeet  is  the  eiiiieation  of  the  hoy  and  the 
fjirl  ti>  heeome  sincere,  liappy,  ami  e(fiei«'iit  imii  iiml  wnmi'ti,  caji- 
ahh'  of  hecoriiing  i-flueale*!  worivers  witli  material  tilings,  capiiMe 
of  getting  life's  happiness  out  of  work  rather  than  out  of  the  leis- 
ure which  comes  after  work,  if  indeed  it  comes  at  all.  .\  further 
legitimate  purpose  is  to  e<lucate  the  strongest  youth  towards  the 
farm  and  tlie  industries,  instead  of  towards  husines.s  and  profes- 
sions exclusively.  For  these  ends  the  courses  utilize  agriculture 
and  the  nnH-hanie  and  domestic  arts  [nirely  as  (sincational  ma- 
terial, ahsolutcly  on  a  par  with  Greek,  i>atin,  and  mathematics. 
To  l)e<onie  thoroughly  eHicii-nt,  the  ytnith  nuist  still  re<'eive  the 
training  of  sj»«s-ial  te<-hnical  instruction  or  of  experience.  Hut  the 
I)U!>il  who  ha-s  had  four  years  of  tin-  kind  of  instruction  re<oni- 
meiidiil,  will  ()<>  not  only  a  t>etter  edncatisi  man.  hut  a  more  in- 
tcllig<'nt  farmer,  mc<'hanic,  or  houseki-eiHT. 

The  courses  are  desi^jned  to  overcome  the  prevailing 
teinlency  to  think  of  ajxriculture  and  hoine-makirifi  as  un- 
worthy callings.  Agriculture  must  he  raised  to  as  dignified 
a  position  as  medicine,  law,  or  engineering.  Home-making 
must  he  looked  ujKjn  as  a  profession  hy  the  girl  who  goes 
out  from  the  secondarj'  sc1um)1.  The  .schools  will  never  he- 
come  efficient  in  the  highest  di-gree  until  the  hasic  arts  ujwn 
which  the  future  welfare  of  state  an«l  nation  depends  are 
given  their  prop«'r  plai-e  side  hy  side  with  the  traditional 
suhje<ts.  Raise  the  condition  of  the  farmer  and  hiscxcupa- 
lion  in  the  mitulsof  the  jM'ojde,  make  farming  a.s  great  an 
avenue  to  distinction  as  politics,  and  give  as  nmch  con- 
sideration to  the  man  who  does  things  as  is  now  given  to 
the  rr:,m  who  talk-:  ahoiit  tliein.  and  then  we  shall  uol  have 
to  complain  of  the  condition  of  agriculture. 


l! 

\  i 


dM 


ISS 


A(;iii(ri/n  UAL  edkation 


Thr  s<  lifMtl  premises  coiisisl  «)f  two  liiiil.lin;,'s  ami  ;i  j^ncii- 
hoiiM'.  'I'lic  o|i|  hnildin^:  was  rniit»«lrl«'(l  ami  n-paircd.  Tlu' 
main  llixir  is  iist-d  for  a  j;yiiiiia.siiiiii  ami  tin-  l.as.iunil  for 
shops.  'I'Ik' first  lloor  of  tlu*  lu'W  Imildiiiy  coiilaiiis  lal»o- 
ralory,  <  uiniiKTcial  room,  IvjM'wriltT  r<Kmi.  lilirar\-  («»<hm> 
v«.luiii«-i),  sii|MTiiiltii<ltiit's  ofIi(«'.  primipal's  ollicf.  IxMik- 
roorii,  ami  lady  ttaclicrs"  room.  'I'lii'  second  lltMir  conlaiiis 
a  larji»'sludy-r(M)ni,  st'iitiiijjoiichiitulnd  and  fifty,  an<l  four 
class-rooms,  i-acli  capaMo  of  a<c-ommodatin>:  tinrty-six 
jmpils.  Thrcostof  tlu' m-w  IniildiiiK'.  including  tin-  gnrn- 
honsf.  was  $:{(>.(»<)(>. 

'Ilie  ^rcH-nhousf  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  huihIinK 
and  connetted  with  it  Ity  a  continuous  passage-way.  It  is 
licatcd  l>y  a  s])c<ial  hot-water  heater  in  the  haseniciit  of 
the  main  huildin^.  IJenches  covered  with  soil  to  a  depth  of 
•six  inches  are  jjlaced  around  the  walls  on  four  sides  and  one 
down  the  center.  'I'hey  are  used  for  cxjHTimenls  in  jjrow- 
iii^'  j)lants.  'I'luMosf  of  the  Krecnh«.ii>e  was  !i?.>(MK  and  of 
the  heating;  apparatus  ^'IM.  Tl.ere  i>  also  a  dairj-  labora- 
tory in  the  Itascment  of  the  main  Ituildin^. 

The  donn'slic  arts  course  is  four  years  in  length,  and  its 
e<iMij)ment  <on>ists  of  kitchen  and  diniiij.'-riM)m.  and  uten- 
sils and  furniture  for  cooking;  and  serving,  such  as  would 
he  found  in  the  house  of  a  family  of  moderate  mean.s. 

Two  shops  are  provided,  a  for^e-shop  for  j,'«'neral  forf,'inB 
anil  farm-hlacksmithing,  and  a  w«mk1  shop.  The  nuiin  pur- 
po.se  of  these  shojjs  is  stated  to  lie,  "to  erud)le  a  hoy  to 
accpiire  so  nnich  of  the  art  of  the  car])enter  and  the  Mack- 
smith  as  lo  cnahle  him  to  understand  the  structure  of  farm 
buildings  and  ma<hines.  and  to  make  sundr>  repairs  to  the 


same. 


The  staff  consists  of  six  teachers,  including  the  principal. 
The  i)rincipal  and  two  of  the  teachers  are  graduates  of  the 
ordinarj-  collegiate  and  literary  courses.  The  teacher  of 
agrirultiire  holds  a  degree  from  the  Massach\isetts  .\gri- 
tulluralC'ollcLre.  The  domestic  arts  teacher  graduated  from 


.<:  -stJ  , 


.-,.  _  — --js,,«-_.  . 


SE((JNI)AHY    KDITATIOX    IN    ACIRKMITrUK     iitn 


pi       >• 


the  home  t><'(>nomics  <lr|)ur!mrnt  of  Siintnnn.s  Collcm". 
Tin*  fotntncrrial  t<'arlitT  is  :i  ^ratliiatr  of  tlir  rotiuiu-nial 
ruiirv  tif  Salem  NDriiial  Sliuol.  'I'liiis  it  will  Iw  Mfii  lliat 
tlif  tnirliiTH  of  tin-  iiidiislrial  suhjerfs  an*  of  the  .same 
n(-a<l<Miiic  rank  as  (lie  tcacluTs  of  tlu"  oniiriarj'  .siil>j«'<ts, 
and  this  «H|uality  plays  its  part  in  <l«'t«'nuiinnn  th«'  estima- 
tion in  which  these  industrial  sultjects  are  hehl  hy  the 
pupils. 

The  sf'h<K)l  is  administered  hy  a  ,s<hool  lM>ard  of  six 
iiit'tnlMTs,  fleeted  liy  tin-  jH'opie.  The  siijKTintendrnt  is  the 
exe<  iitive  officer  of  the  lM)urd.  and  in  his  hands  is  placed  the 
siiiM'rinten«lenee,  direction,  nml  management  of  the  scIkmiI. 
I'mhT  the  char^je  of  the  su|HTintendent  there  are,  in  ad- 
dition, tlu'  fjraded  sch«»ols  of  the  villat^e,  twelve  un^raih'tl 
scho. .Is  in  the  farminj^  -.cctions  outside,  and  the  s<h(M)Is 
of  Krrol,  a  neijjlihorin^  town.  Thes«'  two  towns  unite  to 
form  what  is  called  in  New  Ham])shire  a  sujK'rvisory  <iis- 
triet,  and  they  employ  e»)njointly  a  suiHrintench'nt  of 
s<  hools.  The  State  pays  one  half  the  salarj'  of  the  su|M'r- 
iiitendcnt.   The  olliee  is  divorced  entirely  from  politics. 

Tlir  Farragut  hcIiodI.^  — .Vnother  strikitifj  example  of  re- 
orj^aiii/.ation  on  a  .somewhat  simpler  plan  is  the  Farra^iil 
school,  near  ("onc«ir.l,  Tennes.s«'c.  Six  years  aj^o  the  Ixiild- 
inji  was  destroyed  by  fire,  hut  it  was  immediately  rcl)uilt 
hy  the  |>eople  at  a  cost  of  about  .^l-i.tKK).  A  complete 
water-.system  was  in.stalled,  costing?  a  little  less  than  JjCUMMJ, 
milking  the  initial  co.st  of  the  pro|K'rty.  with  twelve  acres  of 
land,  about  $17,()0().  The  sch(M)l  stands  in  the  o|)en  coun- 
try* about  one  and  a  half  miles  from  Concord,  a  village  of 
apj)  )ximately  300  jK'ople.  The  buihiin^  is  a  two-story 
brick  structure,  with  ba.s<Muent.  The  hi^^h  mIiooI  (K'cujtics 
the  second  floor.  The  first  floor  is  tK-cupied  by  the  elemen- 
tary- school.  One  half  the  bas<'ment  contains  the  home- 
economics  room,  the  lunch-room,  and  toilet-r<M)ms  for  ^irls. 

'  Till'  I'jirriiKiit  Slid.il.  a  T<iiti.'SM'f  Country-lift-  High  School,  fuileil 
SLutt '^  iturcau  of  Eilucutiun.    Liulletia  W.    IUVS. 


1   f 


U 


t  Jl 


1 


MICkCCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANTI  and  1?      TEST  CHART  No    2 

1.0    If  IS   a 

'        ^'         2.2 

;_     ,  .^i       ■    - 

I.I 


2.0 


1.8 


1.25 


1-4      III  1.6 


j=     APPLIED  iV.>1GE     Inc 


1S4  AGRICILTIRAL  EDUCATION 

Six  acres  of  ground  ar«>  u.s(m1  for  huildin^s.  playgrounds, 
and  the  like.  'I'lio  rciiiaiiiirit,'  six  acres  an*  u>e(i  for  dciiioii- 
st ration  piirpoM-s.  'I'lirff  foiir-yt'ar  coursi's  of  study  arc 
otfcrccl  —  Latin,  Kni^lisli,  a^iricuilurc.  niaiuial  training  for 
tiic  Ivoys.  and  lionic  econoniics  for  the  j^'irls.  TIr-  attend- 
ance has  almost  trcMed  during  the  la>t  four  years,  largely 
as  a  result  of  the  practical  work  otfered  in  the  course  of 
study  and  the  chanf^e  in  the  attitude  of  tht  local  farmers 
towards  agri'-ultural  education. 

The  ahove  two  excellent  exaitiples  offer  su^'f^estions  as  to 
the  methods  hy  which  the  uvcraK*'  countrs-  hii,'h  sch(M)l  can 
be  reorpmized  for  the  puqM)se  of  j^iviiif^  efficient  agricul- 
tural education  to  such  lK)ys  and  )^irl:.  as  are  able  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  oi)portunities  provided. 

niK    ORG.\>fIZ.VTJO.\'    OF    THK    SI'KCI.VLIZKD    AGRICULTURAL 

HIGH    SCHOOL 

The  s])ecial  ty])eof  airriciiltural  school  is  an  accomplished 
fact  in  many  states,  and  it  is  pcrformiufra  function  that  has 
not  hitherto  Ix-en  performed  hy  any  other  institution. 

In  the  study  of  these  special  schools,  the  first  j)oint  to  l>c 
Cf^nsidered  is  the  question  of  their  manafjement  and  c-ont  rol. 
On  this  continent,  we  have  almost  a  mania  for  forming  new 
orj^anizations,  hut  it  is  to  Ik?  ho])ed  that  the  cstahli-shment 
of  special  schools  will  not  necessitate  another  governing 
body,  and  that  the  unity  of  the  educational  .sy.stem  will  Ite 
maintained. 

Count}!  agricultural  hujh  schonh.  —  The  tyj)0  of  school 
that  seems  to  he  highest  in  ])<ii)ular  favor  to-<lay  is  that 
known  as  the  county  agricultural  high  school.  Such  schools 
were  first  estahlished  in  Wisconsin  in  \\)iH.  and  the  Wiscon- 
sin jilan  may  jx-rhaps  be  taken  as  tyj)ical.  These  schools, 
strictly  speaking,  are  agricultural  trade  schools.  The  term 
"trade  school"  is  here  used  in  tin'  best  and  most  modern 
.sense.  In  the  i)ast  the  term  was  sui)posed  to  indicate  a  tyi)e 
of  school  that  gave  the  narrowest  kind  of  instruction.  But 


i^ 


^*  tOl 


SECONDARY    EDTTATION   IN   AGRICIXTITIE     I'X; 

tho  nifMlern  trade  srhonl  docs  not  iicf^hvt  the  cultural  iitid 
ji'.^tlu'lic  side  of  life,  which  is  iiun>a.siiigly  iiniKjrtant  if  trade 
siil)j(t'ls  are  to  ho  well  taii^^ht. 

These  county  schools  are  designed  to  eduiate  the  farm 
lM)y  and  girl  who  is  not  ahle  or  d«H\s  not  wish  to  take  an 
extensive  c(illegiate  courst',  young  jhtsohs  who  are  desirous 
of  obtaining  that  form  of  training  which  w ill  Ik?  most  useful 
to  them  when  they  take  charge  of  the  home  farm  or  the 
farm  home.  The  school  is  made  the  educational  center  of 
the  community,  and  the  fanners  are  free  to  call  u|)on  it  for 
assistance  in  any  line  of  work  relating  to  the  farm  and  its 
prohlems.  The  county  is  a  taxable  unit,  and  the  schools 
draw  their  supiwrt  from  l)oth  county  and  State.  In  this 
way  local  pride  and  interest  is  maintained  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  when  the  schools  are  sui)])orted  entirely  by  the 
State.  The  orginal  law  allowed  the  establishment  of  two 
s<li(K)ls  in  the  state,  but  it  was  afterwards  amended  to  al- 
low ten. 

'I'he  .schools  admit  boys  and  girls  on  equal  terms.  The 
course  of  study  covers  a  jRTiod  of  two  years  of  eight  monlhs 
each.  Two  thirds  of  the  cost  of  maintenance  up  to  a 
maximum  of  $4(M)0  is  grantetl  to  each  sch(M>l  by  the  State. 
Tlie  entrance  requirements  sixK-ify  that  students  shall 
have  completed  work  equal  to  the  eighth  grade.  Students 
are  admitted  from  any  part  of  the  state.  The  governing 
body  consists  of  three  meml)ers,  who  form  the  county 
s(li(M)l-lM)ard,  two  of  them  Ixnng  elected  by  the  county 
board  of  suiKTvisors  for  a  iK'ri(Hl  of  three  years.  The  county 
siiiH'rintendent  of  schools  is  ex-officio  secretary  of  the 
.school-board.  The  county  l)oard  has  control  over  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  school,  subjixt  to  the  ai)j)roval  of  the 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  atnl  the  Dean 
of  the  College  of  Agriculture.  In  this  way  the  s<hools  are 
kept  within  the  limits  of  the  state  system  of  public  educa- 
tion. 

One  of  the  main  objections  that  luis  Iteen  urged  against 


!  '  ■ 


136 


AGHK  ILTUILVI.  EDICATION 


tlicsp  schools  is  tliat  thoy  .irc  Ian  frankly  vocational.  It 
must  he  roincnilxTcd  that  they  are  designed  to  reacli  the 
lioy  of  fourfeen  years  of  i^e  who  has  decided  tU'tinitely  to 
make  farming  his  hfe-work;  and  that  if  he  (hd  not  ^et  this 
si)ecial  trainiiif^  lie  would  i)rol)al)ly  obtain  no  further  educa- 
tion than  the  elementary  school  affords.  In  addition  to  the 
purely  agricultural  subjects,  provision  is  made  for  English, 
arithmetic,  music,  drawing,  and  scien'-e. 

In  similar  schools  in  Minnesota,  one  third  of  the  time  is 
devoted  to  general  studies,  one  third  to  science  related  to 
agriculture,  a.id  one  third  to  technical  subjects  relating  to 
agricultun'  and  home  economics. 

(Umgressumal  (Uxtricl  hiijh  srhimit.  —  Many  consider  that 
the  county  is  tcxi  small  an  area  to  provich-  for  the  pr(>'>er 
equipment  and  maintenance  of  a  thoroughgoing  agricul- 
tiiral  high  sch(K)l.  The  coiigressioi\al  district  schools  of 
Alabama  and  (icorgia  meet  this  objection.  Alabama  was 
the  first  State  to  esta]>lish  an  agricultural  school  in  each 
congressional  district.  Each  of  thes<»  sch(M)ls  accommtHlates 
from  two  to  nine  counties,  and  there  are  now  nine  snch 
swhools.  F)ach  of  them  has  a  branch  exjK'riment  statiim 
connected  with  it  and  receives  $7o(K)  annually  from  the 
State.  Georgia  has  eleven  such  scluxils.  They  receive  the 
proceeds  of  the  sUite  oil  and  fertilizer  taxes,  amounting  to 
about  $10,000  for  each  school.  The  buildings,  land,  and 
other  efjuipment  were  provided  by  local  contributions. 
Each  school  is  provided  with  not  less  than  200  acres  of 
land.  The  course  of  study  extends  over  four  years,  and  in- 
cludes two  years  of  primary -school  work  and  two  years  of 
high-sch(Mjl  work. 

Thes*'  s<'1km)1s  are  ex])re.ssly  designed  to  l>e  vocational. 
The  first  stej)  in  the  development  of  any  biisinf  .  is  to  make 
it  pay.  We  may  rhay)sodize  about  the  glories  of  country 
life,  the  songs  of  birds,  the  beautiful  sunshine,  and  the 
lilM'rty  of  life  in  the  oj)en  countrj',  but  no  man,  even  if  he  has 
the  capacity,  can  fully  enjoy  these  unless  he  has  brought 


SErONDAUY    EDrCATIOX    IN    Af.RK  ILTIUE     1.57 

his  Imsiricss  to  a  paying  basis.  I'ndor  these  circiinistances 
it  is  jK'rf»'<lly  roasonahh*.  aii(K  indtTti,  is  iHHcssiirj-  to  the 
fulfilment  of  their  |)ro|MT  furictioti.  that  the.M'  xhools 
should  (ie\-ote  a  ^reat  ainoiiiit  of  atteiitioii  to  tiie  fiiiaiuial 
a>i>et  t  of  their  instruclioii.  All  s<1i(h)1  farms,  exeept  those 
that  are  reserved  for  puri)oscs  of  demonstration  and  ex- 
IRTiment,  should  })c  run  on  a  strictly  business  haais. 

An  fxamjdr  of  the  Kpccialized  county  high  ■■school. ^  —  The 
work  that  can  l)e  done  for  the  eoninuinity  l>y  a  county 
agricultural  hi^h  sch{M)l  is  well  shown  hy  the  Agricultural 
Hi^h  ScluH)l  of  naltiinore  County,  Marj-land.  When  this 
schiM)!  had  l)oen  in  ojH'ration  for  only  one  year,  it  had 
carried  on  one  t}^)e  of  work,  at  least,  with  each  class  of 
IK'oj)le  in  the  neighhorluHKl  —  fanners,  farmers'  wiv«'s, 
youn>»  [M^ople.  rural  s<"h(K)l-teachers.  and  children  in  the 
elementary  schools.  .\s  a  result  of  this  work  the  sch(M)l  is 
rej;arded  by  the  jXHiple  as  one  oi  the  licst  institutions  in  the 
county. 

The  school  is  situate*!  in  the  (^ten  count rj',  apart  from 
any  town  or  village,  but  near  a  railway  station.  Four  ele- 
mentary' sch(X)ls,  comprising  ninety  pupils,  were  consoli- 
dated into  twoclas,ses  which  meet  in  the  high-.sch<K)l  build- 
iny.  In  the  first  year  the  high-schof)l  department  ha<l  fifty 
I)upils.  Those  whose  homes  are  not  adjacent  to  the  railway 
are  broupht  by  school  wagons  and  private  conveyances. 
The  school  has  seven  acres  of  ground,  and  the  building  has 
five  cla.ss-rooms,  two  of  which  can  lie  converted  into  an 
assembly  hall  seating  300  persons.  In  the  basement  there 
are  a  manual-training  r(K)in,  a  domeslic-.science  room,  an 
agricultural  laljoratorj*.  a  farm-machinery  room,  and  toilet- 
rooms.  The  school  has  its  own  lighting  and  water-sui)ply 
systems.  All  the  usual  high-scluK)!  subjects  are  taught  ex- 
<tl)t  languages,  agriculture,  domestic  M'ience,  and  manual 
training  Iwing  offere*!  in  place  of  them. 

The  first  principal  of  the  .school  was  new  to  the  commu- 

'   Niitioiuil  .SMiity  fur  Iht-  Study  of  Kducation.    Tenth  }'tur  Buuk. 


H 


i .  ■ 


:i: 


f  ■  n 


13ft 


ACRirTLTTRAL  EDUCATION 


nity.  and  tlio  first  tliiu;:(loiio  was  tluM-otiiiiilation  of  ,i  ranl- 
in(]<x  of  jMTsoiis  in  the  county,  with  all  tlir  information  that 
could  ])(•  r)l)t:iiiu'd  al>out  each  individual.  Three  thousand 
jHTsoiial  invitations  were  i>Micd  for  the  opening  cere- 
monies. i'oster.s  dcs<Til>in)4  'viiat  the  s<h(M)l  had  to  olft-r 
\v»'re  distributed  throuj,'hout  the  county.  The.st'  were 
nailcMJ  u])  on  trees,  on  cro.s.sroads,  post  oflicos,  hlacksniith 
shojis.  on  schoolhouses.  and  on  churclies.  The  school 
adojited  husiness  methods  in  its  a<ivertisinp,  and  owin;,'  to 
the  interest  of  all  the  county  newspaiK^rs  much  free  adver- 
tising^ was  secured. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  school  work,  the  first  orpini- 
zation  was  a  series  of  monthly  meetinfjs  for  rural  scIum)1- 
teachers.  These  occui)ied  the  whole  of  Saturdays.  The 
mornings  were  spent  in  lessfuis  on  i;encral  .s<'hool  methods, 
ami  the  afternoons  in  acricultiire.  The  teachers  hroui^ht 
their  own  luncheon  baskets,  and  hot  coffee  and  tea  were 
.served  by  tlie  pirls  in  the  domestic-.science  kitchen.  FLxer- 
cises  such  as  could  i)e  rci)eated  in  the  couiitn.-  s<hools  with- 
out exjKMisive  aj)l)aratus  were  taken  in  the  laboratories. 
l/>ssons  on  elementary  agriculture  wen>  i)rinted  in  the 
monthly  issues  of  a  hnal  .lewspajMr  and  sent  fn^  to  everv- 
teacher  in  the  county.  Infortunately  these  meetings  were 
not  wholly  successful,  owing  mainly  to  diliicuiiiesof  Irans- 
j)ortation. 

A  course  of  ten  evening  lectures  for  farmers  was  given  on 
soils  and  fertilizers.  Posters  were  displayed  all  over  the 
county.  An  outline  of  each  lecture  was  mimeograj)hed  and 
distributed,  and  the  audience  was  asked  each  time  to  bring 
tlw  outline  of  the  prweding  lecture  for  reference.  The 
first  lecture  was  attended  by  sixty  jhtsous,  the  second  by 
ninety,  the  third  by  one  hundred.  The  average  for  the 
entire  course  was  1-2.5.  and  this  in  an  open  farming  countrv- 
where  practically  evcrj' one  had  to  drive  in  the  dark  over 
bad  roads. 

At  t  he  (lose  of  t  lie  lectures,  a  two  days'  corn  congress  was 


SFXONDARY   EDLCATTON    IN   AGRIClLTrRE     I'.t) 


«l 


pl:iiin("(l.  Twelve  speakers,  the  host  that  roiiM  he  oI>f;iiiic  I 
from  file  I'liitefi  Statt's  Department  of  Apiculture  ami  the 
M.ir.\laml  Agricultural  ('dlle^'e,  gave  a<itlre»c>  at  the 
series  of  six  sessions,  all  directly  on  corn  pn)wiiig  and  eook- 
ini;.  Posters  ^vere  printed  in  red  on  white  ()aper  ( tJie  mIkkI 
colors).  Kveryhody  was  invited  to  exhihit  ten  ears  of  corn. 
l'eo|)le  eame  and  stayed  through  the  two  days,  only  going 
home  to  sleep.  One  hundred  and  eighty  exhibitors  sent  in 
ten  or  more  oars  of  corn,  antl  almost  one  thousaiul  p«'rsons 
attended  the  sessions. 

Twenty  rural  schools  had  held  small  preliminary  shows 
of  their  own,  and  sent  the  best  exhibits  to  the  congress. 
Meetings  were  held  at  the  same  time,  in  different  parts  of 
the  building,  for  men,  women,  and  children.  Meals  were 
.ser\  ed  at  a  lunch-counter  by  the  inenilKTS  of  the  women's 
club,  and  the  prcM-eeds  were  given  to  the  schfH)l  fimd.  Only 
rilibon  prizes  were  gi\-en.  Stores  in  the  county  were  willing 
to  contribute  various  articles  for  priz«'s.  but  owing  to  the 
belief  of  the  sch«>ol  authorities  in  amateur  rather  than  pro- 
fcssioisal  competitions,  they  were  ih'clined.  .Vt  the  close 
flM'  prize  exhibits  were  sold  by  auction,  and  thus  g<K)d  seed- 
corn  was  distributed  throughout  the  county. 

Monthly  meetings  for  women  were  held  on  Saturday 
afternoons.  Three  hundred  postcards  were  sent  to  those 
within  driving  distance.  The  thrcM?  school  wagons  wi-re  run 
over  he  regular  routes  to  bring  them  to  the  meeting. 
After  a  fiftiH^n-minute  address  on  some  vital  toi)ic.  and  a 
little  nuisic.  the  women  divided  into  four  self-<hosen  groups 
wlii(  h  were  continuous  throughout  the  year.  The  first 
group  took  domestic  s<ience  in  the  school  kit<hen.  The 
si'<oiid  group  took  cari)entry  in  the  manual-training  room, 
l<Mrning  to  do  simjile  operations  re(juired  in  the  home  and 
on  file  farm.  The  third  group  took  instruction  in  chair- 
<  ailing,  rug-weaving,  basketry,  and  stenciling.  The  fourth 
i-Toup  took  up  the  study  of  modern  literature.  These 
meetings  had  an  average  attendance  of  eighty-five. 


n 


I 


jfi 


m 


no 


AOHICrLTIRAL   EDITATION 


A  litcr.'irv  society  \v;is  foniird  for  yruinj^  f)orsons  wlio 
\v<T<'  fodold  to  attnul  m  Imol.  'I'liis  iiufts  (nicr  in  two  weeks 
jukI  has  a  ineiiiher^lsiji  of  one  liiiiulred.  S|ielliiij;  l>e<  s,  Co- 
llates, and  other  literary  exercises  are  held.  An  interest iiij» 
olT>lioot  from  this  society  is  a  reading'  circle  which  meets 
one*'  in  every  two  weeks. 

During,'  the  summer  the  s<-hool  conducts  exrM'rinients  on 
the  homo  farms  of  its  pui)ils.  The  hoys  in  the  lii^'h  sch(K)l 
are  refpiired  to  carry  on  px|)oriments  of  their  own  choosinj* 
durin;^  the  summer  vacation.  These  experiments,  scattered 
t)ver  a  territory  twenty-five  miles  lonj;  l>y  five  miles  broad, 
attract  nmch  attention  and  arr>  elTe<-tive  demonstration 
agents.  Many  stud«'nts  test  corn  from  seed  furnislied  l»y 
the  school;  others  test  herds  of  dairy  cows,  and  others  con- 
duct tests  of  cowi)eas  or  p<)p-<-orn.  Tlie  principal  of  the 
school  visits  the  experiments  durinj;  the  summer  and  K'vo3 
general  advice  concerning  them. 

The  school  tests  sivdsanci  milk  for  the  farmers.  Tlirough- 
ttut  the  entire  year  tests  are  made  of  milk  and  cream  for  the 
l)utter-fat  cotitent.  Many  farmers  in  the  nci^lil>orhood 
sell  tlicir  milk  hy  the  amount  of  hutter-fat  contained,  and 
the  lest  made  l)y  the  .scliool  j^ives  them  a  comparison  with 
the  te.st  made  l)y  the  dealer. 

It  will  thus  he  .seen  that  the  expansion  of  a  country  hi^'h 
school  into  an  agricultural  high  s<hool  is  something  more 
than  the  addition  of  siihjects  and  a  change  in  name.  It  is  an 
entire  change  of  point  of  view.  Perhaps  an  etjually  great 
field  of  work  for  the.se  scluwls  may  he  found  with  that  part 
of  the  community  which  does  not  usually  attend  school  at 
nil  and  for  which  the  .school  funds  are  not  usually  available. 
It  is  by  its  work  as  a  whole,  with  the  men  and  women  on  the 
farms  as  well  as  the  pupils  in  the  school,  that  the  agrii-ul- 
tural  lii;:li  school  may  find  its  strongest  claim  to  poi)ular 
attention  and  its  greatest  field  for  constructive  service. 
\Ve  may  watch  the  further  development  of  these  special- 
ized schools  with  great  interest. 


SECUNDAIIY    KDKATION    IN    AGIUClLirUK     Itl 


TI!K    NKKI)    VUH    S1'K<  lAI.I.V    TUAINKl}    TKA(  IIKK.S 

Till-  avrrii;;<'  liif^li-srlioul  (cachcr  vvlio  lias  l»««'ii  traiiu-d 
altmj;  traditional  lines  and  who  has  iKt-n  <H>nstuntly  m- 
j;am"(l  in  prcjiarin;;  [)ii|iils  for  r(illr;;t>  and  f(»r  passing'  tlu> 
cxaniinatiiiiis  lu-o.^sary  for  iMitraiicc  tlnT«'t(),  finds  it  ilidi- 
<  lilt,  and  in  many  casi-s  iinpossihlr,  to  chanp-  his  point  of 
view.  Tht'  fact  is,  a  new  typ<>  of  tcafluT  will  ha\»'  to  !•»• 
dfveloped,  —  one  in  whos*'  training;  both  the  praclii  al  and 
the  acatleniie  have  played  a  part,  and  one  who  has  the 
l>readth  of  vision  to  stH'  holh  the  pnietieal  application  of 
the  academic  an<i  the  academic  application  of  the  practical. 

Tcnchcrx  an  county  Tiitrcsrntalhis  of  the  Dvimrlmrnt  i>f 
Agriculturr.  —  Recently  an  interesliiif^  exp<riin»iit  wa.s 
tried  in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  (iiadnates  taken  dinn-tly 
from  the  a^icultural  college  were  appointed  as  teachers  in 
the  high  schools.  They  were  all  men  who  had  taken  a  four- 
years"  course  and  had  distinguished  themselves  along  agri- 
<ultnral  lines.  In  addition  to  teaching,  they  were  exjK'cted 
to  act  as  the  hwal  representatives  of  the  provin<ial  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  The  latter  function  they  jjcrformed 
admirably,  hut  the  former  was  not  so  well  tlone.  They  had 
not  the  general  education  of  ihe  average  senior  teacher, 
and  they  were  the  agents  of  the  agricultural  coIleg«-  rather 
tlian  of  the  department  of  etlucation.  The  tea<liing  of 
agriculture  to  high-scluxjl  pupils  was  a  secondary  consid- 
eration with  them. 

The.se  men  were  all  earnest,  hardworking,  and  enthusi- 
astic for  agriculture,  hut  they  had  their  attention  <'eiilered 
oil  their  work  in  the  county  and  on  serving  ihe  farmer 
directly,  rather  than  on  reaching  him  through  the  pujiils 
in  the  schools.  IJy  their  success  as  rejjrest-ntatives  of  the 
agriculturaldepartment  they  have  pointed  the  way  to  a  most 
successful  plan  for  the  education  of  the  adult  farmer,  -  • 
till'  ]ila<ing  of  a  representative  of  the  department  in  ever}' 
county;  and  l>y  their  nun-.succcs3  us  teachers  in  the  high 


I 


til 


Hi 


AGlllCLLTLUAL  LDLCATION 


s<lun)Is,  llicy  liJivc  ltd  to  llic  «sliil)li>liiii<'nt  nf  a  ((iiirM'  of 
IraiiiidK  in  tli<'  I  iiivcrsily  fi.r  iii^riculliiral  tciclur-..  'I'\v«» 
yt;irs  <if  llii-.  loiirM'  arr  l<>  Im-  ><|Miit  al  llu'  I  iiiv«r>ity  aiul 
tlic  S<li<)()l  of  lV<la^'oj(j-  ami  two  yi-iirs  at  tlif  AuriculUiral 
('ollr^f. 


TIIK   r^y.  OK   L.VNI)   IN   (  ()\\K<  TU)\    W  ITll    S(  I|1M)I,S.      HOME 

I'UIUK*  TS 
ft  is  al).soliitcly  essential  that  actual  work  l»e  done  on  the 
land  in  connection  with  the  coiirs*'  in  a><ri(  nlture.  No  mere 
lecture,  theoretical,  lalniratopt-.  or  texthook  cours*-  will  Ik! 
snllicient.  It  is  arjjued  by  the  advc nates  of  the  s|K'cial 
schools  that  tin-  hi«li  scIkm)!  is  not  al)le  to  provide  the  nc«- 
«'ssary  e(|uii)Mient  in  land,  iinpleinenis,  animals,  and  the 
like,  for  the  satisfa<'tor>'  teaehiiiK  of  the  sul>je<t.  In  some 
easesthisis  prohahly  true,l)ut  it  is(iueslional»le  whetlier  it 
shouM  l)e  regarded  as  a  (h-fect.  The  pro]H-r  use  of  tlie  iiome 
farm  for  purposes  of  ])raclical  work  and  instruction  can  \>c 
made  to  yi<'ld  results  su|H'rior  to  any  that  can  U-  oiitained 
on  school  proiK'rty. 

I  caniiut  state  t<H»  stroiiKly  tliaf  I  tH'Ii.'vc  Jliat  tin- hcst  i)lafe 
lu  Icarli  a^^riculliirt'  is  on  tlu-  farm,  and  that  it  will  not  ci>>t  any 
more  iiuinev  and  will  pnxhice  nuicli  more  satisfactory-  results  in 
(■very  way,  if  we  liavoa  l)()y  ai>i>lyiiiK  the  theory,  not  at  tlie  s<'1i<m)I, 
l)iit  (in  tlic  farm  wlierc  he  is  likely  to  earn  his  living  in  the  future. 
I  need  not  say  to  you  tliat  one  of  the  ^n-at  handicaps  in  the  f  ea<-h- 
inn  of  asrii-ulture  in  the  liif^h  mIiooI  is  that  it  teiiils  to  he<-onie 
I)urfly  a<-ademic  routine,  and  a  healthy  energetic  Iniy  t)w<)rn«'S 
utterly  dis);uste<l  with  study ini»  aliout  a>;rieulture  and  (i<*\ufi 
tliruM^h  all  sorts  of  motions,  w  hen  his  wliole  hein^  cries  out  for  the 
<i|iportuiiily  to  shuck  his  coat  and  feel  the  sweat  spririf?  from  his 
port', .  while  lie  knows  that  he  is  working  'is  own  crop  with  liis 
ovsii  iiiusclc  and  that  the  returns  from  his  lahors  will  go  into 
ln>  own  p<K-kel.' 

Whether  the  mIiooI  {Hissess<>s  land  or  not.  there  shoidd 
1h'  acli\e  coiiperatiun  hetwei-n  the  mIiooI  and  the  home 

'  ALTi'iiltiirii!  In^tnictinn  ill  ScrDiidary  ScIkmiIs.  l'nit(Hl  States  Bu- 
reau of  i-tiiKalmn     liulktiii  11.    l"Jl;J. 


SECONDARY    EULC.VTION   L\    AGIUCLLTUIIE     ua 


! 


farm.  Soiiit'  liavo  ar^jucd  that  the  hoy  cniniti;'  from  the 
farm  <1<ks  not  iitfd  furthrr  pra<ti«t'.  Imt  that  all  hr  n*- 
(|iiir«-s  is  scifiitific  and  thcorftical  iustriKtiuii  to  siippU'- 
iiu'iit  thf  practice  hv  lias  alr«'a<ly  ha«h  Mo>t  hoys,  so  far  as 
thi'y  hriiif^  farm  practicr  to  thf  .s<hiM»|,  arc  more  hkriy  to 
have  Imh'ii  traimil  to  um-  l»a«l  or  iiulitfrn-nt  nu'th<Hls  than 
to  lis*'  the  lH;.st.  It  sifins  (jiiitc  certain  that  tlie  shpshtMl, 
unmet hixlicah  unassimihited  farm  ex|KTieii<«'  of  the  •onn- 
trj-lired  youth  cannot,  in  tlie  al»seiice  of  a<l<litionai  |>ra<-- 
tin',  Ik*  nia<h'  a  s;if<'  hasis  for  tlic  elfective  teaching  of 
a>,'riculture  as  a  Hfe  vocation. 

Worktioncon  the  home  farm  may  take  the  form  of  sii|H'r- 
vi-rf'<l  home  j)rojiits.  Ihc  prohlem  will  in- vt  in  the  .s<  hool, 
ni(-th(Mi.s  and  plans  discussed,  hut  the  actual  details  them- 
selves will  Ih"  worked  out  on  the  farm.  Kvcrj'  step  shouhJ 
Ix'  suiKTvis<'d  hy  the  teaclier,  and  the  pupil  should  ktrp  a 
strict  account  of  tlie  whole  j)roject.  .V  committei"  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  .Vdvancement  of  .V^ricidtural 
'rcachinjj  reiH)rts  as  follows  on  this  iH)int:  "Vttur  ("oiu- 
iiiittceisof  opinion  that  the  hour  is  at  hand  for  the  further- 
iti;^.  not  so  mu<h  the  rai)id  extension,  of  the  teaching  of 
a^^riculture  in  an  evcr->,'rowin^  mimln'r  of  hi^h  schools  I>y 
t!te  improvement  of  the  quality  of  the  instruction  where 
if  is  already  estahlished,  but  the  centering  of  it  ujxm 
sii|R'rvise<l  economic  prmluction  carried  out  hy  the  pui>ila 
uiM)n  their  home  farms." 

The  Miutiachw'icttji  home- project  plan.  —  One  of  the  In'st 
inetluKls  that  have  l)e<>n  devised  for  working;  out  the 
economic  asix><'ts  of  the  instruction,  is  the  i)rojiHf  |)Ian 
(arried  out  on  the  home  farm  under  average  conditions, 
and  not  uiuKt  the  ideal  conditions  that  it  may  1h'  |Kissil»le 
t'l  ol)taiti  on  the  farm  of  an  institution  supported  hy  Stale 
fiiiidv  The  State  of  MassachuM-tts  presc-riln's  this  plan  as  a 
cniiditioii  of  lii^h  si'hools  receiving  jjrants  for  agricultural 
eiliK  ation.  The  regulations  ^overniiifj  \(><atiorial  depart- 
ments in  hij^li  sch(H)ls  in  that  state  are  strict  in  requiring 


N 


)'o\ 


m 


AGKK  ILTl'IUL  EDlfATION 


"  tliut  whrii  conflict  is  uiiavoidaMc,  or  when,  iis  at  plantin^^ 
time,  continuoiis  application  for  u  conMMulive  niunlxT  of 
<lays  to  his  projwt  U'conuvs  n«'<'cssarj',  all  t-l."*  must  yirid 
to  tlic  |>upirs  |>ro|M'r  aKriciillnral  instruction,  no  matter  at 
what  cost  for  the  time  In-iiiK  to  his  other  studies." 

Ihcrc  arc  two  distinct  parts  to  this  projc<t  plan:  the  first 
is  pHKluctivc  farm-work  suiMTvis*-*!  hy  tlu>  instructor;  and 
the  M'coiid  isstinly  dinntly  related  to  that  prcKluctive  x'^'ork. 
'I'he  formal  class  instruction  cov»ts  ahoul  four  sprin^^ 
months  and  al)oul  two  motiths  in  tlie  fall.  The  in.structor's 
primary  husiness  in  the  sununer  (he  takes  his  vm-ation  (hir- 
ing the  winter)  is  to  ke*-])  in  tlic  clo.s«>st  inissihle  touch  with 
the  iiome  proJtH-Ls  of  the  pupils;  and  the  fre<juency  with 
w  lii<ii  he  visits  them  is  determiiu-<l  chiefly  l>y  the  distance 
he  iui.s  to  travel.  For  exam|)le.  one  in.structor  is  known  to 
ruU'  a  cinuit  of  l»etween  fifty  and  si.xty  luiles.  The  short- 
est cjrcuit  taken  is  ahout  thirty  miles. 

Aeeordiu^  to  a  re|M)rt  of  the  state  a^ent  for  a^icultural 
education,  out  of  a  fjroup  of  twenty-live  l)oys,  five  from 
each  of  fiv«'  .s<;h<H>ls,  two  earned  more  than  $,'MM)  each, 
twelve  earne<l  mon-  than  ij^-i^HJ.  anil  only  thn-e  earned  less 
than  !i<HM)from  their  home-proj«H't  work  in  V.)\'i.  The  total 
earnings  of  the  twenty-five  pupils  ex(ree<led  $50(H).  The 
lii^jhest  net  profit,  after  the  pupil  had  paid  him.self  for  his 
ow  n  laltor  and  had  met  all  other  ex|)en.ses  in  eouneetion  w  ilh 
his  crop,  was  .'i<'i7().'i4.  This  pui»il  had  paid  himself  iJlOO.Oi 
for  lal><>r,  and  had  paid  others  of  his  family  for  laUjr,  usi'  of 
land,  anil  other  si-rvices.  $771. M).  The  total  imome  of  the 
farm  from  his  home  projeit.  which  was  the  handling  of 
twelve  ilair>'  cows  from  NovemU'r  7  to  June  7,  was  $1 150.- 
7o.  In  addition,  this  lK>y,  eijjhteen  years  of  age,  was  al- 
lowed hy  his  father  for  other  farm-work  done  at  home  the 
sum  of  *it)().  Thus,  the  l>oy's  income  from  farm-work  for 
the  |K»riod  mentioned  was  $579.46.' 

'  'I'll.-  M:i-iv:i,  IniM'tts  lliirTK-Prnjcrt  Flan  of  Vix-ational  A^'ri(■Illt^lral 
K<lur.ili..ii.    I  iiitr.l  St.iUa  Uun.au  of  Education.   Bulletins      I'Jlt. 


SK(()M)AUV    EDITATION    IN    A(;UI<  ll/n  UK     Hj 

This  comMnution  of  nl^^itl^;  atxl  learning'  \«il|  solvi' 
many  of  the  ecotiomir  «!i(fi(iilt  i«s  of  t  lir  iivrriiK*- fariu  yniilli. 
Kvcti  those  who  diil  not  liavc  such  sur<«'ss  as  (hf  l\v«-iify- 
fivc  riK'iifiotU'd  ••aninl  soim-thin^',  aixi  l«-ariu-<l  valual.le 
l<>soiis  iK'si.Irs.  'I'hr  siiialh-st  aiiioiint  i-unu-*!  was  1^7.00 
from  a  ono-fifjlith-arrc  «arih'n.  krpt  so  ranfiilly  an<|  Ix-au- 
tifiilly  that  th«-  laljor  cost  ran  up  far  too  hijjh  for  •Morioriiic 
pnMhi<ti«)n.  ("onsiilcrril  from  every  |M)irit  of  view,  the 
lioiue-l)roj«'et  phui,  the  siictH'ss  of  whirh  (lefw-nds  on  the 
most  careful  sufH-rvisioti.  s<'ein.s  to  offer  great  iKWsibiJitiea 
in  setondury  agrituHural  education. 


fl 


li 


i  I 
I 


I 


a/:V 


H 


CIIAPTEIl   IX 

THE    AOItlCLLTrUAL   (  OLLEOE 

TilK  first  agricultural  colio^f  on  the  North  American  con- 
timiit  was  founded  in  1K.>7.  Now  even.'  state  in  the  I'nion 
and  everv'  province  in  tlie  Dominion  has  one  or  more  well- 
r<|uipjKMi  colh^es.  These  coliefjes  have  had  a  strenuous 
fij^ht  for  existence  and  for  recofjnition.  Tliey  have  had  to 
train  their  own  professors,  to  create  a  Ixxly  of  kiunviedj^e 
and  fxive  it  pedji^jogie  form,  to  hreak  down  the  contempt 
of  the  practical  farmer,  and  to  secure  the  sympathy  of  hos- 
tile educators.  Xotwithstandinj;  the  difficulties  that  have 
iK'set  their  path,  they  have  now  estahlished  themselves  on 
u  sure  foundation  and  have  justified  their  creation. 


THi:  PIRPOSK  OK  TIIK  LAND  flHANT  rOI,LKf:F.S 
The  ohject  of  the  orij^inal  land  fjrant.  hy  wliicli  tli'  nl- 
le^es  were  establislied  in  the  I'nited  States,  was  expressed 
in  the  broadest  |M)ssiltle  terms  us  follows:  "To  the  endow- 
ment, sui)port,  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  colUj^e, 
where  the  leadinj^  ohjt-et  shall  1k',  without  exeludiuH  other 
scientific  and  classical  studies,  and  incluilinj^  military'  tac- 
tics, to  teach  such  branches  of  leamuif?  as  are  related  to 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  such  manner  as  the 
Icfjislatures  of  the  states  may  resjKrtively  prescriJK',  in 
onler  to  promote  the  lilx-ral  and  practical  education  of  the 
industrial  classes  in  the  several  inirsuits  and  professions  in 
life."  ' 

This  paripraj)!!  has  J)een  the  cause  of  much  discussion. 
SiMiator  Morrill,  the  author  of  the  bill,  was  quite  clear  in  his 
own  mind  a-s  to  the  puri)ose  for  which  these  colleges  were 

'  Agriviltural  Ediiratinn.  M(in<i^;raph  li.  i;iluc:itiou  ia  ibc  Iniltd 
Statts.    St.  Louia  KxiKiaitiim,  I'JUl. 


If 


p^ 


f, 

) 


-t 


THE   AGRICrLTlTlAL   COLLEGE  U7 

rstaI)Iislio<l.  On  many  (x-casions  he  sUtttl  the  ()l)je<t  of  {he 
law  in  lanKiia«e  which  cannot  Ik-  niisun(ler.st(MHl.  On  one 
ocvasion  he  said,  "It  is  iMTliai)s  mrdle.vs  to  say  that  these 
colleges  were  not  estal)li>ht.|  for  the  soh-  i)iinM)se  of  teach- 
int:  a;,'rienlture.  Their  t)hjeet  was  to  pve  an  oi)porfnnity  to 
those  en^'aged  in  agricultural  pursuits  toohtaiu  some  knowl- 
ed^'e  of  the  jjraetieal  sciences  relating  to  agriculture  and 
tlie  mechanic  arts:  such  as  they  could  not  then  ohtaiu  at 
inn>t  of  our  institutions  called  classical  colleges,  where  the 
lan^uaKes,  Greek  and  Latin,  French  and  (nrman,  ahsorln-d 
IKThaps  two  thirds  of  all  the  time  of  all  the  students  in 
coiluf^e."  ' 

In  the  title  of  the  hill  introduced  l)y  him  on  DecemlKT  l.>, 
1S7.'{,  Senator  Morrill  called  the  instituti(ms  "national 
colleges  for  the  advancement  of  general  scientific  and  in- 
dustrial education."  and  he  used  to  say  tliat  the  name 
"  agricultural  college  "  would  never  have  Ix'en  api)lied,  "ex- 
(■•■I)f  that  it  had  haj)pene<J  to  suit  the  casual  convenienct-  of 
an  index  clerk."  Af;ain  he  said.  "I  should  hope  that  no 
farmer  or  mechanic  would  Ik?  so  illilx'ral  as  to  wish  to  have 
the  monoi)oly  of  education  in  any  of  thes<>  land->,'rant 
colleges."  They  were  intended  to  l)e.  as  Ezra  Cornell  said, 
!!i>titutions  "where  any  person  can  lind  instruction  in  any 
stu<ly."' 

I  he  ori;,'inal  land  p-ant  had  two  purposes  in  view:  first, 
the  encouragement  of  educ;  tion  in  the  practical  arts;  and, 
>econd,  the  stimulation  of  hxal  supi)ort  and  interest.  That 
these  two  objects  have  been  accomj)lished  is  shown  by  the 
ri"i)utation  the  collet;es  now  hold,  and  by  the  large  State 
funds  that  are  contributed  towards  their  maintenance. 
I'oreign  observers  of  education  on  the  North  American 
'  "iitinent  have  criticized  adversely  the  American  tendency 
to  S)end  money  on  "bricks  ami  mortar"  rather  than  on 
nun.  and  to  |)revent  these  funds  from  l)eing  used  in  cx- 

'  Agncultural  Eduratinn.    MonoRrai.h    1*.    Ivlurution  in  the  InitiJ 
>;.it' >.   Si.  Louis  E.\j«j^ilii)ii,  IjDI. 


til 


118 


AGUICLLTIUAL  EUUCATIOX 


tniva^ratit  projects  it  was  expressly  stipulated  "that  no 
portion  of  tin'  >ai<l  fiiiul  or  iiitcrt-st  tlicreoii  shall  1)0  applit'd 
(lirectly  or  indirfctiy,  utnltr  aii\  pr<t('ii(f  w  j:.itev«T,  to  the 
purchase,  erection,  pre.->er\alion  or  rejKiir  of  any  huildiug 
or  iiuildiuj^s."  ' 


Tin;  STIU  (KiLKS  OF  Till;  I.AM)  (IKANT  (  OLLKGES 
In  view  of  the  success  of  the  colleijes.  it  is  interesting  to 
read  some  of  the  early  expressions  used  concerning  them. 
The  older  colleges  looked  with  ( ciusiderahle  disfavor  upon 
the  intrusion  of  these  institutions  into  what  they  con- 
sidered their  peculiar  domain.  ".\  waste  of  i)ul)Iic  land 
and  of  private  fortunes";  "the  ilreanis  of  aniiahle  but 
visionary  enthusiasts";  "another  illustration  of  the  folly 
of  attempting  to  make  a  silk  purse  out  of  a  sow's  ear";  "a 
jjroject  analogous  to  the  fantastic  de\  ict;  to  extract  gold 
from  sea  water,"  and  many  others,  wi're  the  expressions 
ajjplied  to  them. 

In  a  report  presented  hy  the  ( 'onnuis,-<ioner  of  Labor  in 
18!);},  the  agricultural  colleges  are  called  "half-developed 
colleges  of  agriculture  and  mechanics."  lie  places  them 
between  the  trade  .schools  and  the  technical  colleges  of 
university  grade,  giving  them  a  very  indefinite  and  nonde- 
script i)osition.  This  attitude  was,  perhajjs,  not  hostile  to 
tlie  colleges,  but  al  any  rate  it  shows  that  they  had  not  yet 
achieved  a  recognized  po.>ilion  among  the  educational  in- 
stitutions of  the  country. 

The  State  Sup»Tintendent  of  Education  for  Wisconsin, 
in  his  report  for  1S!».'5  i)k  expressed  grave  doubts  as  to 
whether  the  colleges  had  justified  their  existence.  lie 
argued  that  the  State  goes  beyond  its  admitted  duty  of 
training  boys  and  girls  for  citizen.>hip  when  it  attemj)ts  lu 
teach  them  trades  and  [»rofessions.  It  is  then  entering  upon 
the  policy  of  absorption  of  individual  rights  and  re.^ponsi- 

'  .iijrirulliiral  Kiluratiun.  Monograph  \i.  Educatiun  iu  the  United 
States.    St.  Louis  KxiHi.-itioii,  IU04. 


^ 


THE   AGRirrLTlKAL   COLLEGE  lift 

l.i'ilirs.  and  he  flq)loros  the  fart  that  puMie  opinion  seems 
If)  l)e  .s\vin>,Miig  in  that  dinilion. 

"It  IS  not  easy,"  he  say.s,  "to  ovcrrstiniate  the  importuiKv  of 
our  farm  idt.Tosts.  aii.l  any  ag.-ricy  that  tends  to  impart  t<i  those 
(•iiK'a>,'f<l  in  this  purstiit  that  (|iii<kn»-ss  of  apprcln-ii.sion  and  ahrt- 
n.—;  of  thoiiKlit  that  rharact.rizo  lliosc  cnKajjcd  in  mainifactnriiiK 
,ind  <omm.T(ial  .-nt.Ti.ri/cs.  i>  to  h.-  \\.l(om.-<i.  Hut  a^'ri.  iiltiirc 
is  not  a.s<ii'nc<-:  it  has  no  l.ody  ,,f  ,slal.lishiti  dtKtritic  tliat  ma\  l)e 
formiihiti'd  and  Un^hLas  hiw  or  meiiiciii.'  is  tan;;!it.  Math.inat- 
ir..  s.irncc,  lit.Tatur.-.  hniKuaKcs.  and  alii<-,i  topics  arc  the  same 
f(.r  the  farm  hoy  a.s  for  others.  Nritli.T  for  liim  nor  for  others  is 
tliiTi'u  short  cut  or  royal  roail  to  learning. 

"The  power  of  roiuentrated  thinking  is  the  result  of  sev.Te  and 
I)rotraeti'«l  mental  training.  Farmers  nw-.!  it  a.s  much  as  m<ii  ia 
other  profe.s.sional  pursuits,  .\grieulture  can  offer  no  superior 
facilities  for  the  aecpiisition  of  mental  power.  In  so  far  a.s  these 
s(  liools  resort  to  the  same  methods  iis  the  literary  colleges  a.lopt. 
It  IS  dimply  a  multiplication  of  agencies  to  .secure  the  same  results. 
The  mstnictional  force  in  our  own  agricultural  college  iWiseonsiti) 
iiiNolves  an  <  utlay  of  nearly  8-,>0.()(»0.  and  it  has  graduate.!  iiiiie 
stu.lents  in  ten  years.  The  !a.st  catalogue  showed  an  attendance 
of  two.  one  of  whom  graduated  in  June.  It  .s<'cms  ahsiird  to  rail 
such  a  faculty  with  so  many  students  a  'college.'  .Vn  aftendanco 
at  tlie  dairy  .sch(M>I  of  hoys  from  the  farm  for  twelve  weeks  in  the 
winter  gives  them  scant  title  to  enrolment  a.s  university  students, 
ami  affords  little  occupatiim  t<j  the  i>rofe.s.sors." 

Xot  only  were  the  teachers  and  (hrectors  of  educational 
thoui:ht  and  inslitution.s  opiMJsed  to  the  eolIej;e.s,  hut  the 
farmers  thein.selves.  for  whom  the  eollcjies  were  hirgcjy  (h-- 
siLriM'd,  hv.>!<ed  upon  them  with  <()nsiderahle  <-ordempt.  and 
for  many  years  they  were  hardly  reganh-d  seriously.  'I'he 
opposition  and  indifTcrenee  of  the  farmer  have  not  yet  en- 
tirely disappeared,  althom^'h  now,  perhaps,  the  opposition 
Is  taking'  a  different  direction.  In  .several  states  it  is  now 
contended  that  the  money  .spent  on  the  maintenance  of 
the  collejies  would  jiroduee  greater  results  if  it  were  de- 
\"\i'<\  to  amieultural  instruction  in  tlie  pultlic  sck^oIs. 

1  he  leaders  (»f  the  a^'ricultural  eollegtvs  and  those  who 
liavt>  the  success  and  development  of  these  colleges  ut 


1     i 


150 


AGRICULTITIAL  EDUCATION 


licart,  arc  inclined  to  think  that  this  opixjsition  has  prac  (i- 
cally  ccasccl.  \\v  look  at  tin-  ^Tcat  pro^Tt-ss  that  has  hern 
niu<h',  wc  think  of  the  infiiirnct'  tliat  the  coUcges  have  rx- 
crtccl  on  agricultural  methods,  we  note  the  peneral  interest 
in  aj^ricultural  j'Ifairs,  and  this  leads  us  to  conclude  that  a 
sta^'c  lias  heen  reached  when  the  whole  situation  can  he  re- 
garde<l  with  coniplacency.  That  agreement  or.  this  jMiint 
has  not  heen  reached,  however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
|)rol)al)ly  the  most  s<athing  criticism  to  which  the  colleges 
ha\c  ever  been  subjected  has  lieen  made  within  the  last 
four  years. 


^M^:. 


THE    KEPORT    OK    THE   CARNEGIE    KOIND.KTION    FOR    THE 
ADVANCEMENT    OF   TEACHING 

The  Carnegie  Foundaiion  f<»r  the  Advancement  of 
Tea<hing,  in  its  fourth  annual  report,  considers  in  <l<tail 
the  teaching  force  and  the  function  of  these  instilntions. 
The  following  extracts,  in  almost  the  exact  wording  of  the 
report,  will  show  its  general  attitude  and  will  also  enumer- 
ate the  charges:  — 

1.  The  colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts 
have  imitatetl,  mainly,  the  old  arts  colleges  and  schools  of 
technology. 

'■2.  In  nearly  all  the  separate  colleges  of  agriculture  it 
[engineering]  has  become  the  <lominant  factor.  .  .  .  The 
tendency  in  these  institutions  "has  been  to  develoj)  along 
the  lines  of  an  engineering  college." 

3.  No  other  colleges  are  so  successful  in  taking  the  boy 
from  the  farm  and  .sending  him  somewhere  else. 

4.  The  land  grant  colleges  are  "ojK'n  to  grave  criticism 
on  the  ground  of  low  .standards."  Boys  go  to  agricultural 
colleges  for  engineering  "because  they  can  obtain  an  edu- 
cation cheaply  and  upon  ea.sy  entrance  retjuirements." 

.■>.  The  chief  rea.son  in  all  such  cases  is  the  desire  for 
numlxTs  and  the  wish  to  impn'ss  the  legislatures.  .  .  .  The 
must  obvious  iield  for  gelling  students  was  the  various 


THE    AGRirrLTIRAL   COLLEGE 


151 


u 


Jiranrhcs  of  torhnolopj'.  and  in  order  to  accomplish  this, 
tlic  fcnn  mechanic  arts  was  conslruccl  to  mean  hi|,'h-gradc 
cnL'inocring. 

0.  The  agricultural  c<)Ilcf,'o  in  nearly  cverj'  state  (lei)Iete3 
the  lii^'h  s<h<M)l  to  ma^'uify  its  own  caus*-.  In  every  case 
the  result  is  educational  demoralization. 

7.  Si)eakinK'  to  the  professors  of  the  colleges,  the  rep<irt 
says:  "There  is  a  wide  divergence  amongst  yourselves  as 
to  what  your  pun)ose  is  in  education.  There  is  no  unity 
,is  to  what  your  mission  is,  as  to  what  your  relations  to 
education  are  to  Ik-.  ...  Is  the  work  of  the  agricultural 
college  that  of  a  college  or  that  of  an  agricultural  trade 
school?" 

8.  Agriculture  and  similar  sul)je<>ts  intro4luce<|  into  the 
secondary  schools  must  remain  "studies  for  general  train- 
ing." 

Ix-t  us  now  consider  these  charges  for  the  purpose  of 
seeing  how  far  they  are  Imrne  out  by  the  facts  and  the 
conditions  that  exist. 

THE    FACTS    IN   THE    CAHE 

The  influence  of  the  old  arts  colleges.  —  The  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  mechanic  arts  were  really  estaLlished 
as  a  protest,  though  not  .so  stated,  again.st  the  old-time 
•  djlege,  but  this  protest  could  not  lie  put  into  efTcctivo 
working  order  at  once.  The  entire  educational  structure 
liiid  been  reared  upon  the  old  tyjK'  of  college.  It  was  the 
only  type  the  jK'ople  knew,  so  it  was  quite  natural  that  it 
.should  l)e  taken  as  the  starting  point.  The  <lemand  grew 
for  an  education  that  should  confer  on  men  and  women  the 
ability  to  do  things,  and  as  rajjidly  as  the  needs  were  dis- 
covered the  colleges  adaptetl  thems<'lves  to  meet  them.  It 
is  (iilH(  lilt  to  form  an  estimation  of  the  educational  condi- 
tions that  existed  fifty  years  ago,  when  the  agricultural 
cnllc^rcs  were  estal)Iishe(i.  There  was  hiiniiy  a  |)opular  de- 
ni.ind  for  education,  and  even  to-<lav  iiianv  s<hcK»ls  that 


5 

3 


1.52 


AGRICnTrRAL  EDrCATION 


have  been  rstahli.slio<l  to  pivc  industrial  trniniriR  are  only 
partially  filled  with  students.  The  demand  for  the  kind  of 
instruction  that  the  eolh-ges  were  prepared  to  give  had  to 
be  create*!  by  the  colleges  themselves. 

Is  cvginccririy  the  dmninant  factor  Y  —  We  are  told  that 
enghuH-ring  has  In-en  the  dominant  factor,  but  the  figures 
available  do  not  Ijear  out  this  contention.  During  the  years 
19(W-1909,  the  increa.se  in  the  numlnT  of  students  taking 
agriculture  was  188  jH-r  cent,  while  the  increa.se  in  engineer- 
ing wa.s  (iO  (KT  cent.  In  the  four  years  lytW  to  1909.  the  in- 
crea.se  in  the  numl)er  of  students  in  the  degree  courses  in 
engineering  wsus  34  f)er  cent,  and  the  increase  iu  the  degree 
cours<\s  in  agriculture  Wiis  140  [H>r  cent.' 

At  the  time  the  colleges  were  established,  agriculture 
was  largely  regarded  as  a  one-profe.s.sor  subjec-t.  One  pro- 
fessor, it  was  generally  thought,  could  teach  the  subject,  aa 
another  man  could  teach  language  or  mathematics.  The 
subject  has  now  l^een  divided  into  various  departments, 
each  one  of  which  now  offers  more  courses  than  the  entire 
subject  of  agriculture  required  even  fifteen  years  ago.  For 
example,  the  Agricultural  College  at  Cornell  I'niversity 
offered  three  subjects  in  agriculture  in  1890,  37  in  1900 
lf.9in  1910.  and  ^.34  in  1914;  and  this  has  been  the  tend- 
ency in  all  the  colleges. 

Progress  has  also  been  made,  of  course,  in  engineering, 
but  the  comparative  growth  has  bet^n  much  greater  in 
agriculture.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  during  the  early  years 
students  in  attendanc-e  in  the  mwhanic-arts  courses  in- 
orea.setl  more  rapidly  than  tho.se  in  attendance  at  the  agri- 
cultural courses;  but  this  was  due  largely  to  the  condition 
of  agnc  ilture  at  the  time  and  to  the  enormous  develop- 
ment of  the  mec-hanical  industries.  Farms  were  mortgaged, 
hours  of  labor  were  long  and  hard,  and  it  was  n;)t  the  ambi- 
tion of  the  farmer  to  have  his  son  remain  on  the  farm.  The 

tio'n^T  ''"i""f"'^^rT'"^  AgriculturHl  Colkgos  an.l  Kxjxrimenl  Sta- 
tions.   Iwtnty-fourth  .\nnual  Htport. 


THE   AGRirrLTTRAL  COLLEGE  i.',!i 

(levrlopment  of  the  industries  loci  to  the  idea  that  the  fu- 
ture of  the  coutitry  Injy  lay  in  their  direitioii. 

Talcing  the  youth  from  the  farm.  -The  next  item  in  the 
eount  is  the  charge  that  the  aprieultural  eolU-^'os  arc  tak- 
iuL'  yuun^  [MH>f)le  from  the  faru<  and  M«ndin>:  them  sonie- 
wh.re  else.  With  this  arpiment  some  symf)athy  must  f)o 
e\i>res.s<Ml.  hut  it  is  l)ase«J  on  a  misapj.n-hension  of  the  funr- 
tini.  of  the  oone^e.  It  is  diffieult  to  ohtain  definite  sta- 
tistics of  the  actual  numbers  of  students  returning;  to  the 
farm;  hut  it  is  admitted  that  many  of  the  gra.luates  do  n(.t 
take  up  i)ractieal  farming.  A  professor  of  the  Ontari<» 
Agricultural  (.'ollege  .siiys:  — 

A  yoiiiiK  man  c-onios  to  the  rollcR,  from  an  Ontario  farm.  If 
li.'  (I.tidi-s  uiH.n  the  four-y.-ar(ours«-.  th.-re  is  smull  cluuio-  that  he 
r.tiiriis  to  the  farm.  The  four-year  eours«-  fits  hirii  for  on.-  of  the 
many  hrancli.-s  of  |.rof.-ssional  work,  and  at  thr  same  time  opt-ns 
Jus  ,y.s  to  th.-  .n.sahilitits  of  farming;.  The  Manic  for  th.-  dire,  tioti 
of  his  ( }ioic<>  h.-s.  not  in  tlic  .-.lii.ation  he  has  Kainci.  t.ut  in  the 
•  ..i.ditions  .)f  farm  hf...  Cntil  thes.-  are  t).-tt.T  th.-  aRrinilturai 
(.'ll.-i:.-  nml  not  Im-  t'xiKtf.-<i  to  s«Tve  as  a  n-irtjiting  ground  fur 
tlif  farms  any  more  Uiau  the  university. 

Of  the  1913  graduates  of  this  college,  less  than  twenty 
p<r  cent  returned  to  the  farm. 

This  opinion  is  frank,  hut  it  omits  any  reference  to  the 
work  of  improving  the  f.irm  conditions  complained  of, 
which  the  graduates  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  do. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  founders  of  these  colleges  had 
tlic  idea  in  mind  that  they  would,  among  other  things, 
trim  the  youth  of  the  country  to  enter  upon  farming  and  so 
:isvi-it  in  the  solving  of  the  problems  of  the  farm. 

The  mission  of  the  college,  however,  is  to  train  leaders, 
niei)  who  can  control,  direct,  and  inspire.  P:ngaged  in  work 
of  this  kind,  these  men  do  much  more  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  agriculture  than  if  they  returned  directly  to  the 
farm.  The  colleges  should  not  Ik-  judged  by  the  numbers 
tliey  return  to  the  farm,  but  by  the  general  improvement 
Hiey  have  effec-ted  in  agricultural  practice  and  methods. 


]jl 


AC.UIcrLTTRAF-  EDrCATIOX 


Lmr  Mnnihirdu  of  nilniission.  —  We  nrr  also  t<)l(J  that 
tlirsc  Iari(l-^;r;nit  coIIc^ms  liavc  (Icinur.ili/fd  ciliicalinii  liy 
tlic  mainfciiaticc  of  Iciw  staiidanls  of  admission.  That 
standards  have  Ixth  low  is  f  nir  to  some  i-xtcnt,  hut  it  iinist 
h«'  ri'tiu'iMlxred  that  diiriim  tlic  tarly  y<'ars  of  the  cxi^triico 
of  the  collr^cs  th«To  were  few  secondary  schools  through- 
out the  country  in  whicli  any  propor  education  conhl  he 
olilaltu'd  that  would  (pialify  for  a<hnission  to  the  colhycs. 
The  older  institutions  had  heen  in  I'xistcnce  for  a  genera- 
tion |)revi()us  to  tlie  estahlishinent  of  the  colleges  and  were 
jM>pular  enough  to  insist  upon  a  fairly  liigh  standard  of  ad- 
mission and  yet  ohtain  a  satisfactory  nuinlwr  of  studt-nts. 
Tlie  standards  had  to  he  fixed  according  to  the  educational 
conditions  existing  in  the  respective  states.  These  stand- 
ards, however,  have  heen  continually  raised.  Conditiotisof 
admission  were  made  c;isy,  not  from  a  desire  to  establish 
low  stanilards  hut  simply  from  the  necessity  of  meeting 
existing  conditions  until  those  conditions  should  Ik*  im- 
prf)ved.  The  strongest  of  the  colleges  now  require  the  eom- 
j)letion  of  the  regular  four-year  high-.school  course,  and  the 
tendeniy  in  all  others  is  to  fix  this  standard  as  rapidly  as 
conditions  will  j)ermit. 

Tftr  desire  for  numbcr.^i.  —  The  desire  for  numbers  is  said 
to  he  the  reason  for  the  low  standard,  and  the  desire  for 
numlxTs  is  said  to  he  for  the  purjHKse  of  impressing  the 
legi.slatures.  May  it  not  l)e  that  the  low  standards  were 
adoj)ted,  not  for  the  rake  of  the  institution  it.self,  but  for 
the  purjMKse  of  affonling  opi)ortunity  to  a  larger  number  of 
young  men  to  get  the  training  they  had  hitherto  lacked.' 
This  as.suredly  is  the  fact  of  the  mattt-r.  Mistakes  have 
been  made  in  these  institutions,  and  even  now,  with  half 
a  centur5''s  experience,  conditions  are  far  from  ideal;  but 
this  they  share  with  every  other  educational  institution  in 
the  countrj'. 

Lack  of  (Kjreevient  among  professors.  —  The  Foundation 
states  that  there  is  lack  of  agreement  as  to  the  scope,  func- 


' 


THE   AGRirrLTIRAL  TOLLEGK 


155 


tion,  .and  purpose  of  tlicso  collcprs  anion^;  tlioso  who  arr  in 
cli.irL'r-  This  may  liavr  lircii  lriu>  of  coiKlitioiis  a^  tlicy  r\- 
i-tr<l  a  quarter  of  a  century  af:o;  and  any  attoinpt  iiiailr  to 
introduce  unifonnity  at  tliat  time  would  have  wn-iked  the 
wlinle  movement.  Conditions  in  the  several  states  were 
dilFirent,  and  phiiis  were  wisely  left  to  the  local  le^'i.>Ia- 
tiirt'S.  It  must  he  admitted  that  for  many  years  there  was 
no  intimate  relationshij)  lM'twi>en  the  professors,  hut  they 
cMdijiied  an  entirely  new  field  and  snITered  all  llie  hard- 
slii|)s  (tf  the  pioni-er.  They  were  without  any  or^ranization 
to  jtromote  their  interests.  With  the  formation  of  the 
".\s>(Miati<Hi  of  American  -V^'ricultural  Colle^'es  and  Kx- 
piTiment  Stations,"  in  1887.  this  condition  was  rapidly 
( li.iMued.  The  a.s.soeiation  entered  into  the  freest  dis<'us>ion 
of  all  topics  relating;  to  the  collej^es  and  (juickly  hrou^dit 
order  out  of  chaos.  There  are,  of  course,  still  {lifTerences, 
hut  there  is  also  suhstantial  a>:reoment  on  policy,  aims,  and 
Jiielliods,  and  conditions  are  hcinp  standardized  as  rapidly 
lis  the  circumstances  of  each  college  warrant. 

Ilan  ogrirullure  no  rocational  value?  —  The  last  assertion, 
that  agriculture  and  similar  .studies  introduced  into  the 
.secondarj-  .s<'h(K)ls  must  remain  "studies  for  general  tniin- 
iiii:,"  and  that  they  can  have  no  vcwational  value,  strikes 
ill  the  root  of  the  whole  que  ion  of  industrial  training  for 
Vocational  puq)oses.  On  the  contrarj-,  it  is  the  i)revalcnt 
lielief  to-day  that  these  suhje*  ts  should  l>e  given  the  great- 
e>t  possihie  utility  or  vwatioral  value.  The  old  «><lucation 
was  admittedly  for  the  few  who  intended  to  enter  the 
<  hurch  or  the  professions.  .\  man's  .status  was  determined 
l>y  his  rank  in  society.  At  Vale  the  practlec  of  arranging 
the  students  in  the  annual  catalogue  according  to  the  rank 
of  tlieir  parents  was  not  discontinued  until  17(i7.  and  at 
Harvard  not  until  three  years  later.  The  alphabet  is  now 
tin  respecter  of  jMTsons.  The  new  education  represented  hy 
the  laufl-grant  colleges  is  for  all  who  can  avail  themselves 
of  it.  These  colleges  stand  fur  equal  educational  opi)crlu- 


l.-,fi 


ACHIcn/IIKAI,   i;i)l CATION 


IP 


riil.v,  for  ;i  r.itir»ti:il  foriiMri.ifion  f»f  tin-  pr.ictical  nnd  t! 
(•iillnriil.  .111.1  a  piicnil  a-laptatimi  lo  tin-  lurds  and  rv- 
qiiirt'iiu-nts  <if  iinMlcm  lift-. 


TIIK    H    ri   UK    OF    TIIK    A(.K|i  II.TI  KM.    <  OI.I.KHF.S 

If  is  iiuw  iMTlinciil  foc..ii,i.|..r  «liat  is  t..  I,,.  H,,.  fu,,.  Ii..n 
an<l  |)iiriM>.>r  ..f  llic.sc  .ollcps  in  tlir  fiitim-.  UV  arc  all 
ready  to  adiriil  somrf  liiii},' ,,f  disaj.iK)ititiiiciif  in  »lic  ronlls 
tlial  liavc  I»<'«'n  adiicv.-d  l.y  f  lie  (oil, -^..-s  in  t;i\  in^' dircd  cd- 
iicatinn  alon^;  a^'ririiltnra!  lines  f.>  ||„-  ^nui  mass  of  farni- 
«Ts.  Tlic  constant  raisinj;  of  entrance  re(|uirenients.  to 
make  til,. in  e.pial  to  I  liuM- of  the  older  institutions  of  lii^;|,cr 
h-arnin^;.  lias  to  a  lar^'c  extent  n-ndored  it  inij)o>siMe  for 
Ihein  to  perf<.rni  that  service.  The  early  discussions  show 
v<ry  clearly  that  direct  fmicfical  instruction  to  the  work- 
ing farmer  (and  mechanic)  was  one  of  the  emls  in  \ieu-.  It 
seems  to  have  I.een  a  mistake  to  attem|)t  to  <]o  this  through 
n  four-year  course.  Neither  tue  farmer  nor  the  mechanic, 
in  till-  present  economic  condition  of  s<k  icty.  \viin)e  al>le 
to  avail  himself  of  provisions  <.f  this  character,  and  other 
nieth(.dsmustl»ef(.und.   In  view  of  the  chanf^ed  conditions, 

it   would  seem  that   tlie  collej^es  >-| Id  now  direct  their 

work  so  that  they  may  accomplish  the  following  en<ls.  each 
one  of  which  includes  many  subordinate  lines  of  ,.tr,,rt  :  — 
Coiir.-^rs  uf  roUniiatc  (jradc.  —  The  four-year  courses  lead- 
in-;  to  a  dej,Tee  should  he  nuide  of  real  collegiate  jrrad;-.  and 
the  requirements  for  admission  nnisl  W  the  successful  com- 
pletion r.f  a  four-year  course  at  an  ai)i)roved  high  s<h()ol. 
This  will  mean  that  the  preparatory  courses,  the  r-our.se.s 
of  secondary  grade,  and  the  various  short  courses,  must 
he  sharply  dilferentiated  from  the  collegiate  courses.  Hy 
adopting  this  plan  the  numhers  in  attendance  will  pro!)ahly 
he  reduced,  hut  this  may  not  prove  a  disadvantage,  for  the 
smaller  da.sMs  will  result  in  heiter  work  being  done;  and 
many  who  would  enter  under  easier  conditions  may  he  in- 
duced to  take  courses  better  suited  to  their  abilities.   'I'he 


THE    AGIIICI  LTIHAL   ('()LLE(;E 


l.>7 


\v..rk  of  rii.'Uiy  cullt  ^.'c  clasM's  lias  l>o(>ii  rnalrri.illy  liiii.|<T<«I 
l.y  tlic  |)n's«'n<r  in  IIhiu  of  stiulmts  who  wen-  itiMilIii  i.iillv 
tin  pared  ami  wrrr  tlitnfon-  uiiaMc  to  <arry  llic  work 
olFtTrd.  Tilt'  piiriMisr  of  llif  collcp'-^'radc  coiirMS  slioiild 
111'  fo  develop  leaders  ami  feacliers  of  the  lii^'lie>t  <|iara(f<r. 
1  In-  <oiirs<  s  should  l>e  so  arraii^'ed  as  to  eiialde  a  person  to 
..l.taiii  u  broad  itlea  of  the  whole  farming  proMiiu.  on  the 
oiii'  hand,  and  to  ^rive  him  the  fullest  kiujwledp-  of  ,otne 
s|>e(i,d  hratieli.  oji  the  other. 

( 'han^'es  in  eeoiioniic  and  .s<m  iai  coiMJitions  have  rendered 
n.w  suhjeets  necessary,  and  many  that  an-  now  superfi- 
cially dealt  with,  if  at  all,  will  reijuire  much  nion*  attention. 
The  farm  is  not  a  se|)ar.ue  entity.  It  is  a  (tart  of  the  hody 
jx.iitic.  The  economic  and  s(M-ial  n-lation.s  which  it  Ix-ars 
to  tlial  !)ody  are  at  presi-nf  practiially  untouched  in  the 
c. II,  jfe  courses,  although  the  terms  "rural  economic  s"'  and 
"rural  sociolo^ry"  are  lwinmis«-d  in  the  |l^o^;^amsof  stu.lies. 
Duriri;,'  the  past  twenty  years  a  larp-  l>o.iy  of  knowie'l^'c, 
uliirhis  larKely  iinu.srd.  Iia.s  Urn  develojM-d  aloti^'  these 
lines,  and  this  knowK-dge  is  more  iiniMirtunt  in  .some 
.-jHi  ts  than  much  of  the  infornuition  on  erop-pr<Mliieti( 
t  hat  is  now  being  imparted.  Uurul  ccxmoniic.s  is  as  impor- 
tant to  tlie  study  of  agriculture  as  chemistry  or  botany.  The 
MX  iaI  relations  of  the  agricultural  community  will  have  to 
be  studied  much  more  closely,  and  the  college  student  must 
Ik-  taught  how  to  discover  for  him.st-lf  the  e.\act  social  and 
»-<  ■>nomi(-  status  of  the  region  in  which  he  is  to  Ik-  placed. 

The  collegiate  course,  if  it  is  to  do  its  work  and  fill  an 
ur;:enf  need,  will  have  to  develop  leaders  and  investigators. 
As  Hailey  says,  in  sjieaking  of  the  besi  tyix-  of  (-oll<ge, 
"it  nuist  stand  broadly  ft)r  rural  .servi(-e.  It  must  include 
uithin  its  activities  such  a  range  of  subjects  as  will  enable 
it  to  de\(-Iop  an  entire  philosophy  of  country  life." 

Sliiirt  spcciul  courses.  —  An  important  function  at  [)res- 
ctit  performed  by  the  college  is  the  giving  of  courses  of 
lower  than  college  grade  to  jK-rsous  who  are  unable  or  un- 


i!' 


I! 


I,»H 


A(.1U(  TF/n  HAL  I;DI  CATION 


williti«  to  take  the  lonpT  roiirsrs.    It  is  liuprd  (Iiaf  flu's 
Jiiintioii  is  (.Illy  a  trmporary  (.iir,  aii<i  that  as  sccmidary 
«'<lii<ali(iM  ill  aL'riciiltiirc  drvrlnps.  it   uill  lucninc  ulmlly 
iiiitH«-.s,ary.  Iliiis  alluwirm  tlic  (..Hearts  to  (jrvotr  lliciii- 
srlvrsc  iilircly  to  pal  (oljc;;.-  work.   Tlu-sr  sln.rt  cniirsrs  aro 
«>f  lu(.  kinds:  intcusivr  coiirMs  d«\<.t<-d  to  tin-  sliidv  of 
siM'«iaIsiilij<'<ts,aMd^'«'rMTalroiirM-s.  'Ilu- former  arc  carrird 
on  for  piriods  of  from  two  wcrk^  |,,  thn-r  montlis.  and  are 
usually  li.i<|  dliriiij;  tli«>  winter.     The  latter  are  desi;;iied  for 
thoxe  yoiin^r  men  and  women  who  lia\«'  dec  ided  to  take  np 
farniin«  as  an  o<<  iipation.  and  they  usually  rontinue  for 
one  or  two  years,   (ireat  care  should  Im-  taken  in  i.lannin^' 
these  courses.   As  the  majority  of  these  students  p.  l.,wk  to 
the  farm,  the  instruction  sliouhl  U'  de>ipi«-d  to  he  of  im- 
mediate practical  u.se  and  to  fit  them  for  tli.-  iKxsitions  tluy 
intend  to  <H(ui)y. 

Tniinlmi  Inichrrs.  —  Am.llier  imiH.rtant  function  which 
the  collej,'es  may  perform  is  the  training'  of  teachers.  It  has 
•sometimes  (.een  conten<led  that  our  educational  system 
.started  at  the  wronj;  end  of  the  siale.  an<l  that  undue  stress 
lias  l.ei'n  plaee<l  u[)on  the  un  v«'rsily  and  the  colle^'e;  hut 
the  history  of  education  and  civilization  shows  that  now 
methods  and  knowl«-df;e  have  originated  in  tlio  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  and  have  then  >,'radually  permeated 
the  whole  educational  system.  The  teachers  of  the  lower 
.mIiooIs  must  receive  their  i)rofe.ssional  training'  and  in- 
tellectual  stimulus  in  .schools  of  hif.'her  >,'rade  if  proj^ress  is 
to  l>e  made.  Thus  in  any  movement  for  the  hetferment 
of  rural  and  afrricultural  conditions  we  must  look  to  the 
agricultural  college  and  the  university  as  our  source  of 
know  ledge  and  inspiration.  The  w  hole  sul.j(H-t  of  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  is  of  great  importance  and  w  ill  be  dealt  with 
.separately. 

rxtrnsinn  srrricr.  —  Since  it  is  manifestly  impossil.le  for 
the  majority  of  working  farmers  to  attend  the  college,  and 
as  it  is  also  evident  that  they  could  not  be  accommodated 


1 


': 


4 


THE    A(;UKIITrRAL   r()I.I.K(iK 


]:,o 


if  tli.y  WfTc  toaffrnd.  it  i«s«Irarly  thrrliify  i.f  »Im-s«>  itislilu- 
ti..ri^  tn  p.  ti>  (he  f;irnirr.  Most  of  tlu'  colltxTN  Iiii\,.  i„,w 
w.  II  ort.'aiiiz««|  cxtfiisiun  (Irpartiiu-nt.s  wliich  an-  doin^;  tli,. 
unrk  rlfn  tivtiy.  Hiil  Ihrrr  an-  yrt  a  lar>:r  niiiiilHT  of 
f.mii.rs  who  Fiiiv*'  not  Im-<'ii  n  ;h  lir<i.  aiui  it  i-,  npoti  llicMi 
fliat  ilFortsshoiiM  now  In- coiicmtratcd.  'I'Im- coll.ps  |ij,v»> 
li.iil  mort'  Micrrss  in  takitl^'  tin-  <olIr;.'r  to  the  farmer  llian 
tli.y  have  had  in  p-llin^'  thr  farnirr  to  the  (olj.u'c.  All  thr 
(<.||<C(s  an-  now  nc omiizin^  the  iiii(>ortari(i-  of  the  work. 
and  a  s«parat»-  chapter  will  Ix'  nc«.ss;iry  to  d<M  riln-.  ivcii 
partially,  the  various  a;,'encic.s  «Tni)|oy«'<|. 

hiitMiijaliim  ami  nw/rr/i.  —  Another  function  of  the 
<ol!(-e  is  the  •lis<-<)very  of  new  and  more  prolilal.Ie  inelh- 
od-  of  jirodiietion,  disfril)nfion,  and  transportation.  The 
<\periiii.-nt  stations  stand  at  the  head  <if  any  eonii)hte 
N  li.iiie  of  airri<ullnral  edncalii.n.  altliouj;h  the  rexareh 
uork  is  not  usually  regarded  as  part  of  such  a  srhcnie. 
S.i.iiliiic  training  and  rescan  h,  how.-ver.  coniliined  with 
Iira<  li(  ;d  demonstration  of  the  work  done,  are  the  sum  and 
siil.stance  of  any  nal  af,'ricultural  pro^Tess.  rrimarily,  of 
cniir>e.  the  experiment  station  is  an  organization  for  the 
a.  (juiMtion  of  knowledge  rather  than  for  its  di.stril.ution; 
I'lit  uidess  the  knowhflge  thus  .seeure«l  is  pro|KTly  dis- 
.■ril.utcd  great  results  cannot  l>e  ex|K-cted.  The  continu- 
aiK f  iiud  pcTmanence  of  research  is  now  assured,  and  it  re- 
iiiains  to  put  its  results  into  the  hands  of  those  who  have 
tilt  aliility  and  the  opixirtunity  t..  u>e  them. 

Dissnnhintiim  of  rxistifuj  hmuluhir.  —  Then"  is  in  ex- 
1-1' nee  a  large  hody  of  simple,  easily  adaptal.je.  scientific 
kiinniclge  which  has  not  yet  reached  the  jwople  for  whom 
It  1- cvprcially  suited.  Researc-h  is  being  made  into  every 
iTaiich  of  agriculture,  and  it  is  an  economic  niH-esMty  that 
tlie  knowledge  which  has  heen  accumuiufed  and  which  is 
'■  ing  adde.l  to  daily  shall  he  utilized  to  the  fullest  extent. 
I  rnrii  a  j)urely  l>ii.>iness  standix.inl.  every  agricultural 
'"llcge  sliould  have  a  departmeut  of  pul.li(  ily  or  informa- 


KiO 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


tion,  not  for  tlic  jjiirpose  of  advortisinj,'  the  collope,  hut  for 
the  i)iir[)OM-  of  sliowirig  the  farmer  that  hy  the  ai)i)neatioii 
of  the  iiicthodN  diseovered  l)y  the  eollege  he  ean  ex{)e<t  to 
senire  (.Tcater  returns  from  his  lalxirs. 

The  pul)n<ity  eoiiiinittee  of  the  \ew  York  State  A^ri- 
eultural  S(Kiety  says  in  its  last  annual  reix)rt:  — 

We  would  sucKfst  that  the  rliaimian  of  thf  i)uf)li<ity  com- 
mittee !)<■  a  [)ai-l  crnpluvce  of  tlic  Stale,  and  in  tlie  Department 
of  Agrieiiitiire  under  the  direet  supervision  of  the  Comnii.ssi<>ner; 
that  he  devote  his  entire  time  to  New  York  State  aKricullnral 
pul.lieity;  that  sii<  li  work  inchid<  the  e<htinK  ami  s<Mnliiig  uut  to 
newspapers  of  the  state  articles  of  interest  on  asrienlfural  suh- 
jeets  in  the  form  of  plate  matter  for  their  eonvenient  us*-;  the 
I)reparation  of  macazitie  articles  and  advertisements;  tlie  suK>;est- 
iii«  of  plans  for  New  York  State  exliil.its  in  the  ditrereiil  states; 
the.-oiiihictiriirof  a  l.ii,'  land  show  ia  New  York  City.  dev.,t.i|  rx'. 
(•lusively  to  New  ^'ork  Slate  and  articles  made  from  New  York 
State  aK'ricnItnral  pro<hicts.  and  illnstratinj;  suKjects  and  matter 
IHTtainiiif;  to  New  York  state  airricnltnre.' 

The  extension  d(>partnient  of  the  A^rieultural  College  of 
North  Dakota  supplies  nearly  tliree  hundred  newspapers, 
magazines,  and  agrieultural  journals,  with  literature  aiuj 
observations  written  with  the  express  puriK)se  of  Ixing  of 
direct  service  to  their  rural  c-onstiluents.  Many  other  col- 
leges are  doing  a  similar  kind  of  work.  The  matter  prv- 
pared  for  the  press  should  he  of  two  kinds:  the  technical, 
and  what  may  he  cidled  the  s<x-ial,  since  it  deals  with  rural 
institutions  and  social  relationships.  Up  to  the  present 
the  former  has  largely  monopolized  attention,  hut  it  is  now 
being  rea.gnized  that  the  .smial  asj)ects  of  country  life 
have  large  influence  on  both  the  character  of  the  iK)pida- 
lion  and  the  agriculture  j)ractised  in  the  region. 

More  than  five  hu..,lred  i)eriodicals  are  now  devoted  to 
agriculture,  and  the  amount  of  agricultural  literature  avail- 

'  New  York  State  A«ri(iilliiral  S<Ki.ty;  tVcwfr.lintrsof  f  licTSnt  \nwnd 
Alc'tini;.  HuU.-tiu  47.  New  York  State  Departmeut  of  .Vgritulturc. 
AIL-uDy. 


THE   AGRICILTUR.VL  COLLEGE  161 

al)l''  for  free  distrihution  has  more  than  douhlccj  within  tlic 
|)ast  five  years.  It  may  Im'  argued  that  suHi<-ient  puliHcity 
has  l)een  secured;  hut  t  here  are  new  fields  in  nt>ed  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  progressive  farmer  is  well  supplied  and  knows 
h..\v  to  o!)tain  information  when  he  neefls  it.  It  is  the  indif- 
ferent farmer  who  must  be  reaelied,  and  new  metho<ls  of 
nrniiation  and  advertisement  must  be  devised  to  acct^m- 
plish  that  end. 

•Vuthoritative  work  of  this  charaeler  will  do  much  to 
.in.iise  the  general  |)ublie.  What  has  been  ealletl  "the 
rcportorial  style  of  literature"  must  be  avoided.  Many 
bri^'ht  sj>ots  and  many  exami)les  of  remarkable  sueee.ss  are 
in  be  found  .s«-atlered  through  theeountry,  and  lhe.se  have 
been  exploited  as  though  they  were  typical  instead  of  ex- 
ceptional; but  this  is  imsleading.  N„  business  succxmIs 
without  proiM-r  and  judicious  advertising,  and  the  work  of 
the  loUeges  is  not  likely  to  prove  an  exception. 

TIIF    imO.\DEn    PROnLEMS   AW.XITIXO    THE    (•()1,LE(;E 

The  general  accusation  leveled  against  the  majority  of 
educational  instituti<.ns  is  that  they  have  not  nuxlified 
their  methods  to  meet  modern  re(|uirements.  In  .some  de- 
gre.'  this  is  applicable  to  the  agricultural  colleges.  The 
cnlicges  have  done  a  great  deal  it)  certain  lines,  but  their 
\\ ork  has  bwn  largely  restricted  to  methods  of  pnxluction. 
^Mllle  production  will  always  reipn're  attention,  owing  to 
the  rapid  increase  of  po[>ulaf ion.  there  are  other  .subjects 
tliat  should  receive  c<insiderably  more  attention  than  has 
.\'t  b,>en  bestowed  upon  them.  As  a  result  of  the  rapid 
•l.vclnpment  of  agricultural  teaching  in  the  ehinentary 
>'  hnols.  high  .schools,  and  s|.e<-ial  .schools,  it  may  be  as- 
>'nm-d  that  definite  technical  in.struction  in  agricultural 
pHK-esses  will  become  somewhat  less  nec-essar\-  in  the  col- 
l'u'<><.  thus  enabling  theni  to  devote  their  atteiiticm  to 
other  subjects  which  are  of  great  e<.-onomie  importance  to 
'lie  fanner. 


I 


IIS 


IGi 


AGRICULTIRAL  EDUCATION 


Prolili  ni.s  (if  Iransjtortultdti.  —  Instruction  relating  to 
ihcIIkmIs  of  transportation,  inthiding  railways,  i-lcctric 
roads,  waf^on  roads,  and  water-ways,  sliould  he  j?ivcn.  The 
farnirr  does  not  make  liis  profit  prii  irily  at  the  j)oint  of 
production,  hut  at  the  j>oint  of  consumption;  and  the  dif- 
ference l>etween  profit  and  loss  often  lies  hetween  these  two 
|)oints.  No  matter  how  good  the  railways  may  he,  if  the 
fanner  has  difficulty  in  hauling  his  |)roduct  to  the  point  of 
shipment  he  is  not  alile  to  lake  fuM  advantage  of  the  rates 
tlu'v  offer.  Considerations  of  f ransj)orlalion  have  heen 
hirgely  centered  on  railways,  and  to  a  less  extent  on  water- 
ways, and  until  recently  wagon  roads  have  heen  wholly 
ignored.  A  had  road  is  a  fa.\  on  every  ton  of  produce 
hauled  over  it;  it  increases  the  lhree-mil«'  haul  to  ten,  the 
time  re<iuired  for  ilie  trip  Irom  one  hour  to  three;  and  it 
shortens  the  life  ot  fh*-  team  and  soon  renders  the  wagon 
a  wreck.  \Vithoul  adecjuale  tnuisporfjition  facilities,  agri- 
cultural d.rvelopnient  is  impussihle;  and  for  this  rea.son 
the  colleges  should  deal  with  the  prohlem  in  an  eflecfive 
manner. 

Prohfcnis  of  distrthnlioii.  —  Another  question  not  yet 
satisfactorily  dealt  with  is  the  prohlem  of  distrihution. 
The  hasic  prohlem  here  is  how  to  hring  ahout  a  readjust- 
ment that  will  give  to  the  farmer  a  full  and  just  proportion 
of  the  amount  the  consumer  pays  for  the  {)roduce.  Accord- 
ing to  the  I'nited  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  it 
costs  approximately  fifty-five  per  cent  of  the  price  paid  hy 
the  consumer  to  deliver  the  product  of  the  farm  to  the  con- 
sumtT">  kitchen.  Is  th- re  not  .st)niewliere  an  unnecessary 
leakage  and  waste  in  our  system  of  dis(ril)uling  and  mar- 
keting? The  remedy  for  tfiis  loss  is  one  that  has  heen 
often  proposed,  namely,  coiiperation. 

riie  .\merican  farmer  is  the  only  class  of  gn-al  economic 
imporlanee  w  ho  is  not  effici«'nlly  organized  for  his  o»\u  pro- 
tection and  progress.  lie  huys  and  sells  and  contlucts  all 
his  husiness  operations  as  an  individual.    He  must  accept 


THE   AGRICCLTLILVL  COLLEGE  ig3 

fur  Lis  ,,n,duct.s  the  price  fixed  by  a  well-organized  IhmIv 
of  .■..nu.nss.on  menhants.  De.nnark  has  ,,oi„te<l  the  way 
(..  remedy  thi.s  eon.lifioM.  In  eon.M.lering  her  example  we 
are  foreed  to  the  eoneiusion  that  the  suece.s>ful  ado,,tion  of 
tl...  ,.nn(),,!e.s  of  cooiH-ration  de,H<nds  n,,o„  the  spirit  of  the 
I..<-I.l.«.  1  he  s,„rit  n-,,„in-.l  has  nut  yet  W^u  develope<l  in 
the  Amenean  farmer.  Herein  lies  one  of  the  neglected  on- 
I.urt,m>t,es  of  the  college.  A  consideration  of  this  question 
i'uu  ves  the  tariff,  the  function  of  the  nnM,lIen,an,  an.!  a 
num her  of  other  problems  which  the  colleges  have  only 
li^'htly  touched.  ^ 

Application  of  correct  bu.vnes.H  methods  to  the  farm  —  The 
"■I  .vrs  slumld  also  devote  attention  to  the  application  of 
curr, rt  business  n^et hods  and  the  development  of  sin,,,Ie 
>y      ins  of  bookkeeping  for  the  farm.    If  the  other  indus- 
In.  ,  of  the  country  were  eon.lucted  on  the  s.me  basis  that 
"I'tains  ,n  agriculture,  many  of  them  would  be  bankrui.t 
^^•'Inn  a  month.  The  farmer  has  not  received  th-eonsider- 
"ti""  in  finam-ial  circles  that  his  business  warrants     He 
< M-mut  obtain  money,  either  for  ,>ermanent  impn>vement, 
"r  fur  temporary  necessities,  on   the  same  terms  as  the 
'Manufacturer  or  the  merchant.    The  colleges  shouhl  fake 
l'"l'l  of  this  question  of  the  farmer's  credit  and  develop  a 

-s.vstem  that  will  meet  the  peculiar  conditions  of  fhecounfry 
'"Id  place  the  business  of  agriculture  on  a  financial  fm.f  ing 
'■'^•''""'"surate  with  its  importance  to  the  national  welfare 
Ilxira.ning  of  leaders.  -  So  many  courses  are  already 
j-'ivrn  ,„  the  agricultural  and  mcvhanical  colleges  that  one 
iHMtates  to  recommend  an  ad.litional  one;  but  the  groun.l 
'J  "ut  yet  fully  covered.    It  is  now  generally  admitted  that 
'■  "'■'-  purpose  of  the  colleges  is  the  training  uf  Ica.lcrs. 
'-I"  f...|d  that  most  urgently  requires  leaders  is.  the  general 
"  '  ..rrnent  o  countr>-  life.   The  curse  for  training  leaders 
'n  <ountry  hfe  should  include  the  prindples  of  rural  e<o- 
-'".n.cs,  rural  education,  rural  church  management,  rural 
r"  rratiun,  rural  society  and  rural  organizations  generally. 


t 


itJ 


ir>4 


AGUICl  LTIUAL  EDKATION 


and  should  |)rcpare  men  to  taki-  a  Iradiiij;  part  in  solvin 
tlu"  proMcin  "of  dcveloi)uij,'  and  maintaining'  on  our  farm 
a  civilization  in  full  harmony  with  the  best  America! 
ideals." 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  AGHKrLTIIlAL  COLLEGE  L\  THE 
EUl CATIONAL    SYSTEM 

In  conclusion,  let  us  consider  the  jjosition  that  the  aj:ri 
cultural  tollege  is  to  occupy  in  the  educatioiud  system  o 
the  state  and  nation.  So  far  a.s  agriculture  is  concerned,  th 
collef,'e  should  take  its  place  at  the  head.  This  implie 
leadership;  but  just  here  a  harmonious  articulation  mus 
he  \v(.rked  out  with  the  education  «lepartnient  of  the  state 
Cases  are  not  unknown  in  which  the  educational  work  ha 
been  nmch  hindered  by  conflict  and  antagonism  bctweei 
these  two  deijartments.  The  college  should  be  regarded  a 
an  integral  part  of  the  system  and  not  as  a  sej.arate  enti; 
Tliis  imposes  duties  on  both  the  schools  and  the  colleg 
It  implies,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  .s<hools,  while  gi\  in| 
an  education  ap|)Iicable  to  the  immediate  needs  of  thei 
pupils,  shall  at  the  same  time  in  sftme  measure  prepare  fo 
entrj'  into  the  college;  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  collegi 
shall  i)lace  all  its  resources  at  the  service  of  the  schools,  ii 
order  to  give  the  a.ssistance  required  in  technical  matters 
We  have  not  yet  considered  definitely  enough  the  relatioi 
of  the  agricultural  college  and  the  university  to  the  elemen 
tiiry  schools.  In  .some  states  they  stand  tcK)  far  apart.  Ii 
many  states  the  condition  of  the  law  Ls  such  that,  if  th< 
colleges  take  any  ])art  in  the  work  of  the  elementary  schools 
it  is  erifircly  owing  to  iheirown  interest  and  initiative,  anc 
not  to  any  right  that  has  been  given  to  them. 

It  will  now  be  in  order  to  consider  how  the  college  maj 
assist  the  rural  s(  hools.  The  methcMls  outlined  are  thos( 
adojifed  by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Colleg". 

1.  For  many  \cars  the  college  has  been  engaged  in  tlit 
training  of  teachers,  mainly  by  means  of  summer  courses 


TIIE   AGRiriLTl  RAL  COLLEGE  icj 

.■irid  special  courses  ront inning' for  fliroe  n-onths.  These  are 
<.r-;mized  in  c.Kiperatiori  with  (lie  Kdueation  Departrueiif. 
-'.  Kvery  iiisprctorate  in  Uie  province  has  its  teachers' 
.M>tit!ite  of  two  days,  and  the  cllep-  sends  speakers  to 
th.se  institutes.  In  addition,  the  colh.p>  offers  its  facili- 
ties for  these  meetings,  and  will  take  full  charge  of  then, 
when  requestwi. 

;}.  Senior  classes  in  the  public  schools  are  encouraged 
to  make  agricultural  excursions  to  the  college.  F<.r  many 
years  the  college  has  f.ffered  to  allow  its  p.ofcssors  to  take 
<  harge  of  these  excursions,  and  conduct  them  tlirough  the 
••-.llcgeg.-ound.iand  buildings,  giving  simple  explanations 
while  s(.  domg;  hut  unfortunately  the  offer  lias  not  yet 
heen  accepted.  The  annual  excursions  of  farmers'  insti- 
tutes, attended  hy  about  50,0()0  farmers  and  their  wives. 
Ie.l  to  the  idea  that  similar  excursions  might  be  organized 
for  the  older  children. 

i.  Rural  sch(K)l  trustees  are  encouraged  to  visit  the 
<-llci;.-  and  the  C(.nsoli,lated  scIkk)!  connected  with  it.  By 
tliw  means  it  is  hoj.ed  to  ren<ler  the  trustees  more  svmpa- 
th-lic  toward  the  introduction  of  elementary  agriculture 
and  s<h()ol  gardens  into  their  own  .schools. 

r>.  Summer  courses  are  organized  for  public  school  in- 
sj.<<tors  whose  work  lies  in  rural  districts.  There  is  no 
iMlf'T  place  than  the  agricultural  college  for  obtaining  an 
inM<:ht  mto  means  and  methcKls  of  improving  rural  eondi- 
tinris  and  agricultural  operations.  It  is  nwcs-sarj-  that  the 
inspectors  shall  be  in  entire  .sympathy  with  the  work  that 
many  of  their  teachers  will  be  called  upon  to  do. 

(!.  Short  courses  are  given  to  iwience  teachers  in  the 
liiL'li  s(li(H)ls  and  continuation  classes.  The  general  adop- 
tinri  of  this  proc-edure  would  .S(K)n  vitally  influence  the 
rural  schools,  as  most  of  the  teachers  in  them  ha  v.-  received 
their  academic  training  in  the  high  .schools.  The  teaching 
"f  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and  ge<.log>-  ,  ,,uhl  th.-n  be 
adapted  somewhat  to  such  practical  considerations  as  the 


106 


AGUICULTIRAL  EDICATION 


Krowinfr  of  i)Iant.s,  soiI<Milturc,  use  of  frrtili/crs,  and  tl 
(IcsfriK'tion  of  injurious  insects,  an. I  he  none  the  less,  l)i 
rather  more,  pMxl  science  fea<hinji. 

7.  The  i)iil)li(ations  of  tlie  college  are  i>hieed  in  all  tl 
pul)Iic  school   lil)raries  and   the  piijjils  are  instructed 
their  use  as  references.   These  i)ul)Iications  consist  of  tl 
colle^'e  monthly,  "the  O.  A.  C.  Review,"  the  annual  r 
port,  and  many  special  bulletins. 

8.  The  teachers  are  encoura<,'ed  to  use  the  college  as 
eorre.spon<lence  school  and  to  train  the  older  pupils  to  d 
the  same.  The  atiswering  of  in(|uiries  is  a  very  extensi\ 
phase  of  eolle-re  service.  Ever>'  (i<'i)artment  of  the  eollej; 
is  en>raK«'d  in  this  service,  and  much  help  is  given  to  teaci 
ers  and  pupils. 

The  colleges  have  a  very  important  part  to  play  in  th 
direction  of  the  work  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  unt 
they  enter  into  this  field  in  an  aggressive  and  effcetiv 
manner  the  work  will  not  be  [jrojKTly  done. 


CHAPTER  X 

SO^^E    FORMS   OF   KXTENSION    SEIiVICE 

TiiK  three  j)hases  of  work  u[)on  wliieh  the  eolIe>;es  may 
|>rn[KTly  enter  are  investi^'ation,  instruction.  an<l  exten- 
sion service.  " Invest ij^at ion  may  Iw  called  tlie  search 
f'.r  truth  11^  nut  a>,Ticultun' and  rural  affairs;  instru<-tion, 
flic  incarnation  of  this  truth  in  trairu'd  leadership;  exten- 
sion service,  the  dissemination  or  dcnKK-ralization  of  this 
truth  —  its  distribution  amonj,'  all  the  people  interestecl." 
The  most  pressing  need  at  present  is  that  the  trutli  already 
(lisccnered  shall  Ik'  placed  in  the  hands  of  farmers  and 
others  who  are  to  Ik?  directly  l)en«'fite<l  hy  it. 

At  the  outset  it  will  Ik;  w«'11  to  define  exiictly  what  is 
meant  hy  "extension"  teaching.  In  the  first  reix)rt  of  the 
committee  on  extension  work  of  the  AsstK-iation  of  Ameri- 
raii  Agricultural  Colleges  and  KxiM-riment  Stations,  the 
following  definiticm  was  fornnilated:  "Kxtension  teaching 
in  agriculture  embraces  those  forms  of  instruction  in  sub- 
jects having  to  do  with  improved  methods  of  agricultural 
production  and  with  the  general  welfare  of  the  rural  |h>i)»i- 
lation  that  are  offered  to  people  not  enrolled  aa  resident 
i)iil)ils  in  e<lucationaI  institutions." 

THK  SCOPE  OF  AGRICULTUR.\L  COLLEGE  EXTENSION  SERVICE 

The  colleges  are  canning  forward  the  extension  work  in 
tlie  s|)irit  of  the  foregoing  definition  and  any  attempt  to 
el.issify  the  different  activities  is  .somewhat  difficult.  I'er- 
liMps  the  best  classification  that  has  yet  been  made  is  the 
one  adopted  tiy  the  committee  above  referral  to.  In  gen- 
eral it  is  as  follows:  — 

A.   Definite  systematic  instruction,  or  formal  teaching:  — 

1.  Tile  k'<ture  course:  Given  umler  t!ie  uuspiees  of  various 
ciuljs  aud    organizations,  one   niglit  a  week  for   several 


I  OH 


AGHIfTF-TrRAL   EDITATIOV 


Wf-flcH.     ThcS4'    l<-<fiir(s  should   .leal    vxilli   .Icfinif,.   |(,piV,. 
nnil  thf  roiirs<-  slionlil  continue  lon^  «iioii).;li  to  deal  with 
that  topic  completely. 
i.  'I  he  rea<liii^;  course:  'I'his  shonld  I.e  drawn  up  l>y  tliecol- 
lc>?e  in  <<k(|><ration  witii  the  slate  e<lucalion  <ie|mrtnieht. 
It   will   he   pursueil  hy   the  student   at   home,    rrovisjou 
sliould  l»e  made  for  jjiviti^;  help  hy  corres|.ondeiice. 
S.  The  c«irresiM)n(lencf  n.urso:   Sui)jcct.s   are  pre.s<ril)ed  and 
(ju.'.stions  set  hy  the  college.    The  aii.swer.s  are  sent  to  the 
college  and  roturne<l  to  the  student  w  hen  correctwl. 
4.  Th.'  nioval.lesch(K>!:  l^wtinR  from  onewt-ek  to  one  month. 

and  conducU-d  a.s  a  .s<h(«)l  l.uf  itinerant  in  character. 
.'».  I'ernianent  (h-monstration   j)lots  or  farm.s:  The  value  of 
certain  methcxls  of  lultivafion  or  varieties  of  crops  is  dem- 
onsfrafttl  rijjht  at  the  floor  of  the  farmer. 
fi.  Stmly  <lul,sof  various  kimls,  such  as  hoys'  corn  cluhs.  girls' 
eaniiing  elul.s.  jK.ultry  cluhs.  and  the  like. 
B.  Teaching  that  is  more  or  l«s.s  informal.  a<I  visory.  or  suggestive: 

1.  C'onveutions:  — 

a.  Farmers'  instilutt-s:  Th<>s«-  are  conducte*!  hy  the  rol- 
h-ges  in  many  sUites.  ^\^lere  tliey  are  not  conducted 
dirtifly  hy  the  college,  they  look  to  the  college  for  a.s- 
sistai.^-*-. 

b.  {'onference.s  on  s]M><ial  agricultural  topics,  such  an 
clairyiug.  |»oultry-raising,  fruit-growing,  and  the  like. 

r.  Teach,  rs"  iustitiit«'s  for  agricultural  puri>ost's. 

2.  Itinerant  lectures:  — 

a.  Mis«vllan«-ous  lectures  on  call,  and  under  many  aus- 
|)ices. 

b.  Traveling  advisers,  or  field  agents. 

c.  The  permanently  located  expert,  or  adviser,  for  a 
county  or  other  prescrilnxl  distriet. 

3.  Literature-:  — 

a.  Puhlications:  monograplis.  leaflets,  circulars,  bulletins, 
and  the  like. 

b.  Correspondence. 

c.  Traveling  libraries. 

4.  Object  le.s,sons:  — 

a.  Field  and  |)latfomi  demonstrations:  less  formal  tlmn 
demonstration  plot.s  and  more  readily  movable  in  char- 
acter, such  as  .spraying  demonstrations. 

6.  Educational  exhibits  at  fairs:  stock-judging,  corn-test- 
ing, and  the  like. 


SOME    FORMS   OF   EXTENSION   SEHVICE      Ifif) 

r.   Ex.iirsions  t<.  Ihr  ,„\\,f(v  to  stu<Jy  .•xiMTinn-nts  or   to 

.>*<■<•  ili'iiionstratiuii'4. 
d.  Sp.i  liil   IrairiK.   railnwul  cars,  or  vatm  <-arr\  injj  BRriciiI- 
fiiral  iiiatcnal  for  tiliicatiorial  jmrpoM'^. 
('.  < 'ixinliiiatioii  atiil  ('o(i|h  ration  :     - 

I.  IIi.Miiif:  "cofifcr.rKivs  nil  rural  |»ri>j,'rc<*.s,"  loliririK  toK<'lhcr 
all  tlif  (M-oplr  iiit«r.st.-<l  in  rural  lifv  for  (li.s<u>sinii.s  of 
the  larger  |)n»l>KTii.s  of  rural  lH-tt«rm(iit. 
•i.  r<«)|M'ration  with  othc-r  ajj.-ncits  ami  aftiviti<-s,  smh  as 
chainlx-rs  of  f«)rmii(Tr'«-,  lM)ar(i.i  of  trmio,  nianufatturcrs' 
assixiatioiis,  labor  urgunizations,  and  the  like. 

There  is  one  grave  danper  to  l)c  puurde*!  against  in  all 
this  work.  In  tlie  jjust  it  has  U^en  looked  u|K)n  in  too  many 
(.•ise>  ;isa  rneansof  exploiting  file  college,  and  in  some  ea.s«'.s 
.if  advertising  individual  professors.  It  should  not  Me 
looked  uiM)n  a.s  a  .s<lienie  hy  whicli  students  are  attracted 
t(.  tlu'  college.  It  is  not  even  a  plan  to  arouse  the  interest  of 
the  Loy  and  girl  in  the  college,  alth(«igh  that  should  follow 
ii>  a  natural  result.  It  is  purely  an  edueiitional  enteri)ri.se, 
and  its  final  pur[,osc  is  to  reach  every  nmu  and  woman  in 
e\ery  farm  community. 


*i| 


THE  QUESTION   OF  OrK;A.\IZ.\TION 

Some  of  the  above  activities  are  taken  up  hy  all  the 
rolleges,  hut  one  notieeahle  feature  of  most  of  the  extension 
u  -rk  hitherto  wndueted  is  its  indeiK-ndent  character.  This 
is  prohahly  accounted  for  hy  the  fact  that  there  have  U-en 
niany  things  in  the  field  of  agriculture  in  which  exiK-rimen- 
tafion  must  lie  done  before  definite  lines  of  coordination 
eat)  k'  established.  A  point  has  now  I>een  reache<l  when  eo- 
ordiiuition  can  Ihj  undertaken  with  some  ho[)e  of  success. 
\N  liile  much  is  Inking  done  in  this  dire<.'tion,  it  is  recognized 
tliat  much  remains  to  l)e  done. 

In  1!K)!),  .steps  were  taken  to  bring  al)oiit  clo.s  r  coordina- 
tion of  extension  effort.  In  that  year,  at  the  twenty-tliird 
•tniuial  conference  of  the  As.s(x.-iation  of  American  Agri- 
cultural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  •.'.  section  on 


170 


.\(;iii(  ri/n  UAL  EniTATiox 


rxft'tisiori  work  wjis  organized.  This  was  plaro.l  on  rqii 
foofirij;  with  the  two  srctiotis  of  instruction  and  invcsli^' 
troll  then  .Ai^litiu;  ;iii(l  throii^'h  it  tMW<  h  ha>  Uvi\  doi 
to  orj.'aiii/c  and  unify  the  niclhods  in  iim>.  Most  of  tl 
collcijcs  have  now  or^'anizcd  extension  divisions,  or  dcpar 
nirnts,  and  th<'  extension  scrvici-  is  lar^jdy  under  the  d 
reition  of  the  heads  of  those  depjirttnents.  sul)j«'<t,  ( 
(•ourse,  to  th<'  general  |)oliey  of  the  president  or  dinx't* 
«»f  the  eolle^'e. 

It  is  scarcely  j)ossil.lo  to  estimate  the  total  sums  thji 
liav(>  l)een  sp«rit  on  the  work  of  tlieeolh-ges.  partieuhirly  o 
outside  work,  hut  it  is  safe  to  say  that.  ^Teat  as  has  iVe 
the  imj)r()vement  in  atrrieullural  i)raetice,  the  returns  hav 
not  iM'eri  eommensurate  with  th«'  money  exp«-nded.  Thi 
may  l»e  attrihuted  to  lack  (.f  concentration.  Sattere( 
efforts,  anil  in  some  <'ases  limited  financial  resources,  hav 
prevented  this  work  from  acliievitiK  its  fullest  measure  o 
suoeess. 

If  is  not  always  advisal*!*-  for  a  eolle^e  to  concentrate  it 
exicn-ion  efforts  on  a  sin^'le  issue  for  a  particular  year.  Tin 
method  of  (h'velopin;;  gradually  a  lar^'c  number  of  interest: 
is  the  l)etter  educafioiiid  policy  in  the  long  nm.  This  jxilicj 
is  not,  however,  antagonistic  to  that  of  piiying  large  atten 
lion  to  and  concentrating  .-frorts  on  a  particular  prohlen 
when  there  is  special  ne<^l.  On  this  point  the  following: 
statement  from  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College  is  illuminat- 
ing:— 

Tlie  efforts  of  tile  ni«^nil)crs  of  the  staff  are  not  t-onfinetl 
to  their  r.'s|),H.tivf  lines  of  work.  Tli.r.'  are  times  when  t!u: 
entire  force  of  tlie  department  is  .iireetol  towards  somt; 
particular  [>rol)lem.  It  may  l)e  llie  scIkh)!  question,  the  s«hh1 

cum.  or  soiiK' other  j.liase  of  county  d.-monstration  work,  the 
purpose  l)einj;  to  create  interest  and  secure  some  detinile  ac- 
tion un  111.'  part  of  the  peoi)!e.  In  fact,  two  or  three  imjx.r- 
taiit  lines  of  work  are  singled  out  for  the  vear.  and  every 
m.nil.er  of  the  staff  will  knd  his  aid  to  the  movcincut  o"ii 
every  wcasion. 


f, 


Sf-ME    FOIIMS  OF   EXTENSION   SERVICE      in 

An.ifluT  (liin^'cp  »(.  \>o  jrnardeil  npainst  is  thaj  ,,f  ^^^^U,^. 
»..(»  iriiKli  liclp.  If  tlic  assistance  pvfti  (l.ws  not  onaMr  (lie 
f.iriricr  iilliiiiat.'ly  (o  ,-,laii.|  iil.in,.,  it  is  tiiissin^r  jj^  mark. 
The  si)irit  of  srlf-dciK'nchnce  should  Im>  «|«'V(|oim-<|  in  null 
(uiiiniiinity;  the  helj)  needed  shoiihl  prow  less  ami  less.  It 
is  said  that  in  some  states  the  ix-ople  clejM'nd  ns  larHy  on 
outside  ai<l  in  or^rani/in^r  and  holdinf?  farmers'  instifntes  as 
they  did  fifteen  or  twenty  years  a^o;  in  others,  on  the  ..tlier 
h.irid.  a  lar^e  projM.rf i<.n  (.f  the  meetings  are  managed  en- 
tin  ly  l)y  lotal  authorities. 


PnASE.1   OF    EXTENSION    SEKVICR 

nrailing  rourne.'i.  —  In  tlie  early  stages  of  the  movement 
r.>r  agricultural  extension,  reading  courses  occupied  a  pn)m- 
inciit  place;  hut  of  nvent  years  they  sn-m  to  have  fallen 
somewhat  into  disfavor.  pn)lml.ly  Ixvause  it  was  found 
that   they  were  rarely  taken  except  hy  those  who  v.er.« 
.1  In  ady  interested  in  a  particular  subject.    The  reading 
courses  have  done  good  work,  however,  and  if  i)roperly 
cuducted  they  still  have  a  nnssion  t«)  fulfil.    The  courses 
an-  generally  conductwl  somewhat  as  follows:  The  college 
l;iys  out  a  certain  course  of  reading  on  definite  tojjics,  — 
fnr  example,  on  dairjing,  fruit-culture,  F)oultry-raising.  .)r 
((.rn-grf)wing,  —  presorilies  lMM)ks  or  hulletins  for  n-ading. 
and   makes  arrangements  for  suix-rvising  the  work  an.l 
Mil)|)lying  the  readers  with  examination  questions.    The 
student  is  asked  to  r(>ad  carefully  the  chosen  topics.   \N  hen 
the  subject  is  read.  i)rinte<I  (piestions  are  sent  to  the  stu- 
<l<rit  and  answers  requested  without  recourse  to  the  book 
•T  l.uUetin  used  for  the  less<m.    Tsually  spcnially  prejian-d 
!•  iflffs  or  pami)hlets  will  U-  found  more  .satisfactc.ry.  as 
the  average  textbook  contains  considerable  matter  tliat  is 
ii'it  applicable  to  the  subject  of  the  course. 

In  iNM^i.  the  president  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  C'ol- 
li'^-'c  outlined  a  rea.ling  course  for  farmers,  and  certificates, 
prizes,  and  scholarships  were  offered.   The  course  was  not 


0 


r 


A(ilM(  JLTIRAL  EF)r(.\TIOV 


«..krn  a.lvant.i-.-  ..f  ui,|,.|y  .in.l  fl,.-  ,,ri/r.  wrnt  mainly  f, 
.A  >lii.|.Ti»s  ..f  ,11..^-,..    ()„;n^r  ,„  ,|,i.  f..„.f  ;„„|  ,,;,|,, 

«linii.i.'.-nr..llMMi,l.  Hn  .  nhrpriM  ua.^  .Ii.m  untimir.l  a.i.l  ha 
ii(\cp  Item  rrsiinird. 

TIh-  (irst  \\\,\,\y  s||(•(•^^sf||l  r..iirsr  of  ||,is  kind  in  (Ik 
I  nil.-d  Sfafrs  was  r^lahlislirfl  in  <<.ntuTti,,ii  with  III.-  I'.-nn 
•sylvania  Statr  (  •..IIck'.'  in  July.  \H<H.  Tl,,.  ,,,||t.^re  pmvi.K 
Ixx.ks.  and  ^nvc  tlio  rcadrrs  examinations  \vli«-n««v,T  tlicj 
were  rrady  to  takr  tlii-m.  Many  ..f  flu-  n-ad.-rs  foutul  .lilfi- 
nilty  in  und.-rstandinK  tlu'  IxH.ks.  for  it  was  foun.i  imiM.ssi- 
I.I.-  to  provi.lr  .siiital.h-  texts;  ami  assistantf  was  jrivrri  l.y 
<(.rn-si»omlrnr,.  in  rU-Amu^  up  diffiniltirs.  At  first  these 
eoiirseseov.red  s.-ven  Ixn.ks;  the  st-<ond  winter  the  list  was 
increased  in  sixteen,  and  in  a<ldition  a  sp«Hial  set  of  less<.ns 
was  i)r.-pared  on  farm  IxH-kkeepini;.  In  iSiW,  the  eharaeter 
of  the  movement  was  somewhat  mo<lilie«l  and  the  name 
ehanp'd  to  "("<)rr.-s,)omlenee  Courses  in  Agriculture."  the 
title  which  it  now  hears.  There  are  now  thirty-six  c-oursos, 
and  the  mimher  (.f  slud«-nts  enrolled  is  KtOd.i 

A  som«-what  ditrerenl  j)lan  is  followed  at  the  New  York 
State  (\)II<-^r,.  „f  AKriculture  at  Conu-ll  rniv«-rsily.  where 
the  main  idea  is  t<.  provide  elem.-ntary  rtvidiuK'  f<>r  those 
not  in  the  hahit  of  reading  hooks  or  hulletins.  The  Cornell 
Headin^'-Courses  were  connnencnl  in  iSM'!  I  t|„.y  ■,;:.„ 
now  assumed  lar^e  pmiM)rtions.  They  are  <livide<l  into  two 
parts,  each  <lirtH-ted  hy  its  own  officer:  the  Lessons  for  the 
Farm,  and  the  Ix-ssons  for  the  Farm  Homo. 

Heading  courses  will  not  succeed  of  their  own  mo- 
mentum. Som.-lKxly  must  supply  the  motive  jmwer  and 
keep  up  the  interest  hy  propi-r  organization.  The  farmers' 
institutes  miK'ht  well  consider  the  a<lvis;il)ilily  of  forminK' 
small  rt-adiuK  '"luhs  of  ten  to  fifti-<.n  memhers  to  supj)le- 
nient  the  topi<-s  discussed  at  the  institute  meeting's  hy  ..lore 
intensive  study.  These  small  clubs  could  apjx.int'corre- 
'  U.[)„rt  of  the  I).-partm.-nt  of  Agriculture.  Harrisljurg.  IVnnsylvania. 


1 


S^>Mi:   lOUMS  f)F  EXTKNSION  SKUVKE       173 

siKin.lciifs  wild  wiuiM  Im'  al.h'  to  nhtaiti  from  tlir  state 
<nll.j.'f  infuriiialioii  rt-^janiiiij,'  rxtcmli-.l  rnuIiiiK  on  any 
|>;irti(  iilar  topic . 

Stintthlf  KchiHih.  —  Mnvahlc  s«h(K)Is  urc  a  form  of  rxten- 
sinii  s«r\  i<««  from  wliidi  much  k'mmI  may  Ih- t-xiHtlcd.  In 
many  states  tlio  tii,>vcmcnt  lias  as.siimc<l  coii^idrrahl.-  pn*- 
p..rlioiis.  It  arose  IxHause  it  was  f.lt  tliat  no  instrurtion  of 
a  >yslomatic  character  could  l,e  given  at  the  regular  farm- 
ers' institute  imvtings,  whic  h  cimtinue  for  only  o.  ■  or  t^vo 
<lMys.  The  American  AsscK-iation  of  Karm.rs'  Institute 
Workers  adojited  the  following  resolution  in  l!)(Ki:  "'Ihat 
tins  asscK-iation.  appre<-iating  the  imiM)rtance  of  pro\id. 
inir  more  systematic  instruction  in  agriiulture,  herel.y  ex- 
pn  NM-s  its  approval  of  the  use  of  the  movahh-  m  h.^.l  of 
a^'riculfure  as  an  instniment  for  this  i)urp«.,se."  Hcfore  a 
tiioval)leseh(M»leanl»oorganize<l  in  any  hn-ality  there  must 
l>c  a  demami  for  it.  and  for  this  rt-ason  it  is  not  suitalih-  for 
piotiei-r  work.  The  ground  must  Ih>  i)repared.  and  this  has 
Ihtii  done  in  nearly  all  cas<-s  hy  the  n-gular  meetings  of 
firniers'  institutes. 

In  the  organization  of  movalile  scIkmiIs,  rare  nmst  !« 
taken  to  keep  the  class<vs  small.  The  .s<h(M>ls  nmst  conf  iniie 
l.'iig  enough  to  rover  a  suhjeei  thoroughly,  must  jjrovide 
I.lenty  of  individual  work  for  the  students,  and  must  con- 
c'litratc  the  work  on  one  or  tv.o  t.>,)i<s  r.  ,,.es«nting  the 
predominant  in<lustries  of  the  locality.  As  students  v.ho 
iiltind  these  .s<-h<K)ls  are  not  generally  skilled  in  the  art  of 
taking  notes,  a  printed  .syllabus  of  the  hvture  is  cvsenlial. 
'ilii-  should  always  contain  a  list  of  references  and  other 
ni.iliTial  that  <an  he  ohtained  hy  the  student. 

Ill  the  past  tlH-re  has  l.een  a  tend.iicy  to  look  u|M.n  a  large 
attendance  as  conducive  to  efficiency  and  essential  to 
sii((css;  hut  every  stu(h-nt  in  excess  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
i'  >-ens  fh<'  atiioiint  of  individual  work  that  <iin  he  done  l)y 
ea<  h;  and  it  is  the  individual  work  that  counts.  If  lari^e 
inunlHTs  are  aUowed.  the  sch(M)l  .should   U-   hroken    into 


m 


171 


AGIUCI  LTL  HAL   KIM  CATION 


N.'.fi<.ns  for  L.lM,n,t..r.v  work  an.l  (!„•  stafF  In-  large  riu.iu'h 
to  supervise  tins  work  jjroperly. 

In  many  eases  sue.rss  has  1 „  Inst  heeai-se  of  (l,e  re- 

'imreuunt  of  loo  i„te..se  appiiealio,..  Wl^.^  ,l.e  sehool, 
an-  attemie,!  I,y  men  and  women  uiUmul  anv  other  oeeu- 

P"'-",  they  .houhl  t-.ke  up  the  full  ti,„e  ,.f"the  st.aienf 
'•lit  as  a  ruh-  the  p.xsons  alten.hng  do  not  I.elung  l,,  ,hi.s 
Hass.  I.or  I  us  n-ason  it  would  s.-^n  tl.at  .me  s.-ssion  a  <lay 
for  two  weeks  would  !,<•  hett.-r  than  two  session,  a  .lav  for 

«•■'<■  ;v-K-.  This  plan  w.add  have  am-tluT  a.lvantaKe;  it 
"";;''    '•";''•'•■  ;''^■  "'-^fwetor  t.,  n.ake  hin.M.lf  a..,,uaint..d 

w.lhloeai  eon.l.t.ons,  an.l  with  this  kn..^^!,.dge  he  wonM  he 
nM..'h  hett.T  ahk-  to  adapt  his  in.truetiou  t<,  ,u.-et  those 
con.litDus. 

The  question  of  the  n.etho.l  of  organization  of  these 
srhouU  IS  of  some  uuimrtane.-.  Jt  is  d.,iih>ful  whether  stu- 
.l<'nts  under  eighteen  or  nin.t.-en  years  of  age  shouM  he 
a<hn.tt<-.|.  J{,.f.,re  a.l-nission,  all  stu.lents  .houl.l  have  had 
praet.<.aIex,»,-r...neeon  a  fann  an.l  suffi(i,.nt  g..n.Tal  edu- 

••■'t,,,nl,,n,aketh.>,n.-apal.le..fun.h.rstan,|ingth.-insfrue- 
-"     'f    I-yla,kthelalt,T.the,-ir..rtsofthetea<herwi!| 

I..'  Iarg.>ly  wast,d  an.l  the  f.rogres.s  of  the  class  hindered. 

llKTe  should  he  retiuired  of  the  inen,l,ers  a  written  agree- 

inent  that  they  will  pay  the  fee,  attend  the  lectures,  and 
iKTform  all  the  nraetical  work  re.,uire,l.  The  l<,eality 
.^-li-.u  d  provide  suitahle  rooms,  properly  lighted  an.l  heated 
an.l  furnish  materia!  for  illustrative  pur,,os.  .  It  should 
"l-o  I.rovi.le  eon.f..rtal.le  lo.lgin^-s  for  the  inslruet..rs  I„ 
c.nler  that  the  w.,rk  may  l»e  most  elfeetiN  e.  it  shoul.l  n.'.t  he 
d.seontimi.-,!  imme.liafely  after  the  selu.oi  is  closed  The 
■s  u.l.nt  shouM  he  re.juir.-.l  to  pursue  his  slu.lies  through 
tiK-  year.  pen.,d,cally  rep(,rting  ,,rogre.s.s  and  receiving  ad- 
vice l)y  eorresi)on.lence  or  oth.  rwise. 

Among  farmers-  institute  workers  there  is  a  general 
opnuon  in  fav.,r  of  niovahle  s<.ho..|,.  An  investigation 
conducted  hy  tie.  OQice  of  Experiment   StaUons   of  the 


SOME   FORMS  OF   EXTENSION   SEUVICE       17^ 

I'liitcd  Statt's  Dciiarfiiicnt  of  A<,'ri(ultiir»'.  s!ious  tliat 
lil'ly-fnur  iHT  tviit  of  till'  rfi)li»s  rt-ci-ivt-.l  fmni  IIiom- 
uc,rk«'r.s  \v«'rr  in  favor,  nini'tccn  jht  cvui  wen-  not  decidnl, 
;i  111  twenty-five  ptT  trnt  were  against  the  fstahlishmont  of 
iiiii\al>lt'  schools. 

Siicci'ss  (lc[M'n(ls  firv.t  on  loral  sfjirit.and  si-coiul  on  the 
jil.ility  of  the  instructor.  Considering  flic  ini|)ortaiice  of 
the  work,  the  colleges  tiiiglit  well  devote  xome  time  to  the 
training  of  men  specially  for  it.  This  could  be  done  in  jmst- 
^'raiiiialc  courses  after  the  .student  has  had  sonic  actual  cx- 
|..  rieiice  on  the  farm;  for  the  ideal  te;i(  her  for  thi,-,  work 
iiiii>l  have  scientific  knowledge,  pedagogi<'  training,  and 
practical  farin-e.\i)erience. 

(  iiinitij  tj-perts.  —  One  of  the  most  far-reaching  efTorts 
to  carry  definite  agricultural  instruction  to  the  farmer  is 
tliclucationof  an  exi)ert  permanently  in  I  he  county.  In  the 
I'ruviiice  of  Ontario  this  official  is  known  as  the  County 
li.  presentative.  In  that  province  there  are  more  than 
thirty  of  these  men,  with  as  many  assistants,  permanently 
1  <aled  in  as  ma.iy  counties.  The  majority  of  them  are 
prnvidctl  with  stenographers,  and  in  some  cases  it  has  I«-en 
t-iind  necessary  to  appoint  two  a.ssistants  during  the  busy 
M'a-on. 

in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  these  representatives  were 
mtruduced  into  the  comities  by  a  cooperative  arrangement 
l'<  tween  the  Departments  of  .Vgriculfure  and  Educaf ion. 
Ih.ir  work  has  been  of  tiie  most  varied  character,  and  it 
li;i>  reached  many  districts  not  previously  Joik  lied.  Repn-- 
Mutativesof  adjoining  counties  fre(iuen(!y  hold  combined 
incctings.  and  everj-  eirort  is  made  to  join  forces  when  the 
IToiikin  in  hand  requires  such  a.s.-,isfance.  It  may  al.-.o  be 
ii'Med  that  there  is  now  a  friendly  rivalry  between  counties, 
•iihI  that  all  the  counties  that  are  without  representatives 
:irc  making  urgent  apjjlications  for  them.  That  the  work 
'if  these  men  is  aj){)reciated  is  well  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  council  in  one  county  voluntarily  added  $7J0  to  the 


m 


176 


AGRICl  LTIILU.  EDICATIOX 


S<1'200  pai  1  to  tlio  roj>rcscntativc  l>y  the  department;  and  i 
is  well  known  that  these  Ixxlies  are  not  in  the  hahit  of  goinj 
down  into  their  pockets  and  giving  out  money  exeejjt  fo 
value  reeeiveij. 

Farinrr.i'  niiiprratlre  demnn.stration  trnrk.  —  Another  ex 
ample  of  the  work  of  ajTrieultural  experts  on  the  ground  v. 
cooperative  demonstration.  In  the  I  nited  States  this  worJ 
was  eallecJ  forth  }>y  a  crisis.  In  VM>,  the  Mexican  cotton- 
l)oll  wee\il  ai)i)eared  in  Central  Texas  and  practically  de- 
.siroyed  the  crop  over  large  areas.  This  meant  niin  for  tht 
region,  as  both  large  and  small  planters  de{)end  on  cotton 
for  their  income.  Entomologists  had  already  studied  the 
iriseet  and  had  shown  how  cotton  might  \h-  grown  in  s{)itc 
of  it.  Hut  this  involved  new  methods  of  cultivation  and 
the  farmer  wanted  a  "remedy"  which  would  destroy  the 
I)est. 

.Vs  this  was  impracticahle.  the  Bun>au  of  Plant  Industry 
appointed  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Kiiai)p  fo  show  the  p<'ople  how 
they  ( ould  grow  cotton  in  sjjite  of  the  weevil.  He  ajipointed 
a  successful  farmer  as  county  agent  in  each  county.  These 
agents  visited  the  farmers  and  induced  a  certain  number 
to  plant  a  small  area  of  iheir  crop  according  to  the  method 
advised  by  the  Deji  'tment  of  .Vgriculture.  Th(>y  were  to 
be  known  as  demonstrators,  and  their  work  was  given  fre- 
<|uenl  and  careful  su{h  rvision.  Other  farmers  were  encour- 
aged to  try  the  .same  methods,  but  were  visited  only  «)nce 
or  twice  during  the  sea.son.  These  were  called  cooiK>rati»rs. 
The  methods  adopted  were  simi)lc,  and  it  is  not  nece.s.sary 
to  recite  them  here.  The  diversification  of  crops  was  al.so 
encouraged,  .so  that  in  future  the  jlaiiters  .sliouhl  not  be 
entirely  dependent  ujh)!!  cotton. 

The  results  of  the  movement  from  an  economic  point  of 
view  were  colossal. 

IStftiri'  loiin  till'  planters  of  I.nuisiatui.  Texas,  aii<i  Arkan- 
sas, where  the  ixill  weevil  existed,  not  only  "made"  eotton, 
Init  liei,'an  lu  raise  loru  aud  vegotaLilcs  and  Logs  uud  chick- 


SOME  FORMS  OF  EXTENSION  SEUMCE       177 

ens  an.l  rattl,-.  In  1!)0*.  at  a  little  railway  station  in  T.-xas 
th.rc  wius  sliipiM-.!  „nr  carlua.!  of  ii,,^;s.  In  l!)(),-,.  tl.n.nKh" 
tlM-  iniJu.-,rof  Dr.  Knapj.'s  t.a<hin«.  tvv,-nlv-.s<-v,'n  <ar- 
-.a.lswiT  .Inpp,-,!.  In  I^„n.siai,a  in  J!>OH.  tlu- fannrrs  «,r,- 
l'iiy<n«  c.rn.  In  1!MU.  in  a.l.lition  to  .sup[,lvin«  tlu-  corn 
II.  .'I.-.!  at  lu.nif.  tht-y  were  ah!,-  to  sc-ll  oO.OOO  husluls  in  the 
open  niarkft. 


Ill  KKK).  the  Southom  states  produced  approximately 
"tM-  fifth  of  the  corn  of  thv  Tnited  States.  In  ]\)}0  they 
).n..lueed  one  thini  of  it.  The  fact  tliat  the  work  was  not 
.  .irncd  on  for  the  purfx.ses  of  investJKation  made  it  difficult 
to  secure  accurate  fi-ures;  but  (lata  were  coll.vted  from 
al.out  1'2,0(K)  demonstrators,  repri-senting  an  acrea>«.  in 
'-Iton  of  ;iI,out  S.-;.()(M)  acres.  The  t<.la!  numlMT  of  farm- 
.r.  instructed  in  liHl  was  H!).7(it.  of  whom  ^2(i/,'^7  were 
'  l.<vs,>d  as  demonstrators  an«l  w.-re  visite«l  at  h-ast  once 
c\  en-  thirty  days;  6.'J,-5;}7  were  classed  as  cooperators.  and 
tlKir  farms  were  visited  occa-sionally  or  not  at  all.  but 
tli.y  consulted  the  agent  i)ersouaUy  and  received  priuted 
instructions.' 

liullctin  senice.  —  Another  branch  of  extension  work, 
'It hough  not  always  so  regarded,  is  the  bulletin  servic-e  of 
t!ic  diifereni  state  and  fe<leral  departments.  According  to 
n  (ierman  authority,  the  Initeii  States  Governmrnt  is  the 
greatest  publisher  of  e<lucational  literature  in  the  world. 
K  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  investigator  in  any  line  of 
educational  effort  is  af)le  to  obtain  greater  a.ssistance  from 
these  government  i)ub:ications  than  from  any  other  source. 
It  is  estimated  that  more  than  24,00(),000  copies  of  bul- 
i'tins  and  circulars  are  issue<l  annually  by  the  ex{>oriment 
stations  and  the  Unit«Hl  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  IJureau  of  Education  also  issues  many  bulletins,  and 
iM  1!>H  al)out  one  quarter  of  these  were  on  topics  directly 
cnnne<led  with  agricultural  e<lucation. 

'  I Vmonsf ration  Work  on  S<,ufh-rn   Farms.    Farmers'  Bulletin  4«. 
I  iiitril  SUlia  Dtpurtuient  ut  Agriculture. 


178 


AGUK  LLTLH.VL   EDIXATIOX 


Tlirrc  is,  of  coiirsc.  a  \\'u\v  (WiJcrviuv  Ixtwccii  issuing, 
liullcliiis  and  K<'tti"^'  tlu'm  read,  and  m-ncral  si  tlfjcs  an 
not  availahlf  to  >\i(>\\   the  fxlciil  to  wliirli  l!  r  usrd 

In  a  siirvcN  ronipri.^iim  part>  of  Missouri,  A  .ami,  ari< 
(icor^'ia,  1()((1  farmers  wtrc  infrrvii-wed,  and  it  \va>  fouiui 
that  HT,  or  U.7  por  cfiit,  received  Itullctins.  Of  tlies« 
y;Jl,  or  79. i  per  (('iit,  read  them;  and  of  tliesf  a^'ain.  148, 
or  44.7  per  eent,  made  practical  application  of  tlie  infor- 
mation ol)tained  from  them.  Of  the  1001  farmers  visited, 
4.i4,  or  45.4  per  cent,  t(M)k  farm  papers. 

As  a  rule,  these  hull  lins  are  written  in  simple  lan- 
guage, hut  it  is  a  (juestiou  whether  for  many  agricultural 
districts  .sonu'thing  simpler  still  is  not  recpiired.  Tlain 
dire<!tions  a.s  to  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it  M'em  to  Ikj 
needed.  The  "  why*"  may  Ik'  left  to  a  later  st;ige.  If  direc- 
tions were  given  in  a  series  of  mnnliered  [)aragraphs  and 
not  in  the  form  of  a  eoimectt-d  n.irrative.  they  would  he 
moH"  easily  follmved  hy  a  Iar;,'.T  iiuihImt. 

Dnnonniration  /n/j'w.v.  —  'l"he  only  other  fitrm  of  exten- 
sion work  that  s|)ace  will  allow  us  lo  deal  with  is  the 
demonstratii)n  train.  When  first  intnMlue«'d.  tlies«»  trains 
were  believed  Iiy  numy  ti>  Ik-  an  ahsurd  fad,  and  it  wiis 
freely  predicted  that  they  would  not  hust.  It  is  found,  how- 
ever, in  states  in  which  trains  have  heen  o[)oratiHi  for  ten 
years,  that  when  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  trains  go 
over  the  road  they  are  met  each  time  hy  larger  and  more 
intcrest»'d  audiences,  and,  so  far  as  can  Ik;  judgetl,  they 
accomplish  greater  results  than  the  first  train.  These 
trains  have  successfully  arour^ni  the  interest  of  the  iKH)ple. 
While  it  cannot  he  their  mis-ion  to  give  formal  instruction 
or  to  convey  newly  distovered  facts,  exccj)t  in  a  vcrj-  lim- 
ited way,  they  can  show  how  the  old  facts  may  be  applied 
so  as  to  incTca.st'  production. 

IVrhai)S  one  of  the  must  unique  and  elaborate  trains 
that  have  ever  been  titievi  up  was  made  possible  through 
the  ctKJperation  of  the  Norllicrn  i'acilic  Railway  C'umpauy 


\ 


SOME  FORMS  OF  EXTENSION  SEIIVICE       I7y 

•>    1  tho  AKrirultural  ColK',.  „f  \„rth  J)ak„ta.   Tlu.  (r  .in 
-nM>lnl  .,f  Uvl.    .       ,,,..,.    It  ..arn...l  fiv,.  ,y,K.s  of  Ino 
M,K-k     a    ,„o,l.      p„ullry-|..M,..    with    all   a.r,.»..ri,.s.   ..„,. 
.-.arhl.il,..    u,lh  lal,or->avn.K  .levi...  ami  sar.itarv  appli- 
a.HT.  for  the-  farm  Un,nv.  .narluMcry  for  .Tain.h.anin,  a,„l 
<  .rN-ray.n,-,  and  ..tlu-r  .•,,„ip,.,ent.     "I,,  short,  it  was  ,h.- 
a...Kn,lt.,ral,..li,.^H-on  uh,v|.  for  thro.- w.vks.  with  tu<.,.tv- 
-■vr,.  pr.,frs>ors  an.l  in>tn„.t„rs  in  attcn.la.u..  to  rxph.in 
'■  '-'-'unKaiKl  pnrposoof  the  .xhil.its.  as  th.  .nor.  than 
""•"••  I-I'l*'  pass,..!  thrnn^h  tlu-  train  uhil.  on  its  jour- 
-y  through  tho  Stat..-    This  train  was  ac.-on.panied  l.y 
t^v.lve  new.s,.a,HT  corrospon.i,>nt.s  so  that  the  iM-nefits  of 
-  ms,n.ct,on  were  spread  ov.r  a  nuu-h  wider  area  than 
"I't  a.tnally  travers,'d  |,y  lh,.  train. 

Tf'.-  .Marylan.i  .V^rienllnral  Colh.^e  was  prohal.Iv  the 
ir>t  to  pnrehase  a  ear  of  its  own  for  this  work.  This  ear 
I.a.  heen  htte,l  up  with  livin,.  ..narters  for  the  instrnetional 
>  alf,  and  has  a  i.-ctnre-roon.  fitte<l  with  a  l.laekhoard, 
M-reoptuon  and  other  apj.aratns.  A  tri,,  is  taken  eaeh 
y-ar  dnrH,K  the  month  of  May,  with  sto,,s  of  alx.ut  thr.v 
•lays  n>  c.a<h  pla<-e.  an<l  foren.H.n  and  evening  session.s  of 
a  ...ut  two  hours  eaeh  are  held.  This  prohaJ.ly  aecom- 
ph>!H-s  more  toward  the  definite  improven.ent  of  aKrieuI- 
tural  method:,  than  some  of  the  more  si>ectaculur  elfort.s. 

THK   OUTU)OK    FOR    KITrHK    DKNKI.OI'MK.vt 

The  Snnth-U-ver   l.iH.  passed    hy  tiu-  Congre.ss  of  the 

•  ".ted  Mates  „.  l!,!  ^.  „,ay  reasonal.ly  he  e.vpeetcHl  to  pve 

a  ^reat  impetus  to  all  kinds  of  extension  .s<.r .i.e.   This  hill 

^M  has  previously  l>,^.„  referred  t,>.  provide.,  iurge  sup-' 

H-'-'Mtary  funds  fro,n  the  federal  treasury  to  er.eourai^ 

<""I.erative  extension  work  in  the  several  states  ' 

'■'"ally.  It  may  l>e  sai.l  that  the  most  urgent  need  is  the 

"r.arnzation  and  systenuitization  of  extension   methmJ.s. 

iare  should  he  general  agree.nent  us  to  the  work  that 

"le  several  agencies  can  do  and    ' 


! 

•VI 

■  h 


luethuds  of  doing  it; 


180 


AGIlICl'LTrU.VL  EDI  CATION 


ari<l  new  i)laris  will  nvvd  to  Jk-  devise*!  to  reaeh  the  larjj 
nuriilMT  of  farmers  wlio  have  not  yet  heen  informed  < 
th(>  im|)roved  methods  of  farming  that  are  being  raj)idl 
develo|H'd. 


f 


4 


CILVPTER   XI 

IN-STITUTSS    AND    OTHKR    HELPS    FOR   THE   ADULT 

FARMER 

The  furinerV  institute,  as  we  know  it  to-<lay.  is  the  pnMl- 
n<t  „f  the  lust  twenty-five  or  thirty  years.    It  is  an  ex- 
an.ph.  of  an  or«ani2ation  bcKnnning  Kk^-uIIv  and  in  a  small 
way.  and  gradually  si)readin«  throiiKho.it  the  country    It 
was  not  planned;  it  ^rew.  I„  several  states  the  aKriculUiral 
.s.Hi(.t.es  first  promoted  the  farmers'  institute,  and  later  the 
a^Tuultural  colleges  adopted  it  as  a  form  of  extension  serv- 
>n-.    In  the  earliest  agricultural  Six-ieties  the  pronu.tera 
.M-.IP  to  have  had  the  idea  of  traveling  l,H-turers.   In  1S4« 
or  184.3.  such  lectures  were  organize*!  l)y  the  New  York 
Mate  Agncultural  Society,  and  it  is  probable  that  from 
these  and  similar  lectures  the  organization  of  farmers' 
nistitutes  g-ew. 

THE  RISE  OF  THE   INSTITUTE   MOVEiajNT 

The  first  legal  warrant  for  carrying  instruction  to  farm- 
or.  outs.de  of  any  eriucational  institution  was  pmhal>ly  the 
M.higan  law  of  1861.  which  said:  "The  State  Hoard  of 
AKnculture  may  institute  winter  cours^-s  of  lec-tures  for 
"t hers  than  students  of  the  institution    .„der  necessary 

ru.s  and  regulations."  In  186&-70.  itinerant  meetings  were 
JhM  m  Iowa    In  1871.  an  account  of  farmers'  institutes 
vus  imbhshed  m  the  report  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  ('ol- 
.«.•.  m  vv-hich  ,t  was  said  that  "the  exiH^riment  of  holding 
arrners    institutes  in  different  IcK-alities  in  the  state,  for 
tl.r  purpose  of  giving  farm  lectures  on  prominent  topics 
was  tm-d  last  winter  unth  ver>'  gratifying  success.    Insti- 
tutes lasting  three  days  were  held  at  Cedar  Falls,  CouncU 


182 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION* 


IJIiifTs,  Wasliin^'f.iti,  and  Miiscjulinc.  at  each  of  whiili  point' 
uc  foniid  an  (•ntliii>ia>tic  -atlirrin^'  of  fanners." 

The  nio\  einenf  rapid'y  spread  to  other  states.  The  [)lari 
of  having'  an  institnte  in  ea<ii  c-oiinty  ori^'inated  in  Ohio. 
IVactieally  «'very  slate  and  i.rovinc-  in  Nditli  Aineriea 
is  now  provide<l  with  well-or^'anized  fanners'  institutes, 
i)arlly  under  K<>vennnent  direction  and  control  and  partly 
under  l(Kal  auspices. 

In  CaiKKhi.  the  movement  started  at  the  a^'ricuitural 
colle^'e  at  (;uelj)h.  Mend)ers  of  tlie  staff  were  sent  out  J)y 
twos,  and  hiter  two  practical  farmers  were  added.  Later, 
one  professor  and  one  farmer  were  .sent  together.  The  work 
grew  to  such  proportions  that  a  special  sujM-rintendent  wa.s 
ai)p<)inted  under  the  I)ej)artment  of  Af,'riculfure  hy  the 
Provincial  (ioveniment.  and  the  work  has  since  renu'iined 
und<T  his  char>,'e.  The  Ontario  department  makes  an 
annual  grant  of  ><v>.i  to  ea.h  institute,  and  supplies  .siK<akers 
for  at  least  one  series  of  meetings. 


TIIK    KXTKVT   OK   TIIK    INSTITl  TK    MOVKMKNT 

The  institute  movement  is  now  wi<lely  spread  through- 
out North  .Vmeriea,  and  the  nuniLer  of  persons  who  attend 
the  m.vtings  is  large;  l.ut  great  as  it  is.  the  attendanc-e  is 
only  a  small  proportion  of  what  it  might  l)e. 

Tlurc  are  tens  u{  tliousands  <.f  farmers  who  do  not  take 
agninlturaj  pap.rs;  pn.l.ai.ly  not  oik-  farnur  in  twrnty-five 
ev.T  attends  a  furni.TS-  institnt.-  mf.-ti.iK.  Tlu-rc  is  a'e.,.n- 
I)arativ<-ly  small  amount  of  eonsi-cutiv.-  sfu.iv  of  agricultu- 
ral lit.-ratiir,.  among  farmers.  Tli.T.-  is  n.-t-d'of  more  ,-ff(H-- 
tiy.ly  reacliing  tli,-  young  farmc-r  at  home  and  in  the  rural 
srl.u„ls.  As  a  i.lam  matter  of  fa<-t.  w,-  are  not  to-<lav.  .-illu-r 
<lir<-ctiy  or  ui.nn-rtly.  reaching  the  gr.-at  mass  of  tlu-  tillers 
<.r  the  soil  with  e.lu(at..,nal  pr^K-esses  tliat  may  be  regarded 
as  even  fairly  etlieieat.' 

.•  '  ^TY!""  "',  ^""'''''""  ■^>f"'"'f"nil  Calh^r^  an.l  V.xporum'ni  Sta- 
ooMs.  U,u\  A.w.uaK  ..nvention.  HulKtiniW.  Init.-,!  States  Depart.ueut 
III  .Affrieulture.  '^ 


FARMERS'   IXSTITITES  m 

The  work   of  an  instifnfion   ran   nrv.-r   }>o  jikI^vmJ  by 
riti,nl..Ts   alMM,..    Tlir  .,„|y  a.lr(,,ial..  I.^l   is  ll„.  „„mlK  r  «if 
f;irm.Ts  who  put  into  a.tiial  pra.li..-  iinprov.-.l  iMrflio<ls  of 
f.inninc  as  a  result  of  tli.ir  atfoiulan.r  at  the  nuftiii^'s. 
A  l.ir-.-  inin.lKT  may  ullcn.l  a  m.H-tin«  to  listm  to  an  ontcr- 
t..nimK  sjM-ak»T.  an.l  yet  tlu-  rrsultin,,.  vhiiunv  i„  afrricul- 
twral  pra.tur  U-  v.-ry  small.    A  small  m.ml.cr  of  ,kts„„s 
prriiianrntly  Ix-ncfif.-.l  in  a  lar^c  numhor  of  places  is  l.».tter 
lli.ii  a  large  nuinlK-r  of  jH-rsons  in  a  few  I.K-alities.  fHxause 
»li-  larger  nurnlx-r  of  Nnaiities  enables  the  improvement 
tn  \k'  sjjread  over  a  wider  area. 

THK    N.VTIHK    AM>   (»K(;.\MZ.ATION    OK    K.Mt.MKlw' 
INSTITI  TKS 

TarnKTs-  institutes  have  <l.)ne  a  large  work,  particularly 
in  developing  int.-rest  in  agricultural  affairs.  'J'heir  work 
lias  iKvn  chiefly  of  an  inspirational  order.  It  may  Ik;  said 
!•>  include  the  following  objects:  — 

1.  To  give  informati..n  by  calling  attention  to  the 
1.1  us  of  nature,  in  uccordanco  with  which  the  farmer  must 
Work. 

'.'.  To  kindle  the  desire  for  more  systematic  knowledge 
than  the  institute  can  afford,  and  to  |K)int  out  the  sources 
of  such  knowledge. 

.'{.  To  give  inspiration  l)y  citing  examples  of  good 
methods,  by  .setting  forth  true  i.ieals  and  projK-r  goals. 
and  by  emphasizii!  the  possibilities  of  life  in  the  open 
Kiuntry. 

t.  To  l>egin  the  training  of  men  and  women  for  l(K>a! 
leadership  and  greater  |)ublic  .service. 

"'.  To  inaugurate  movements  for  the  imi)rovement  of 
farming  and  country  life,  for  l)etter  seed,  In-lter  live-stock. 
I"l  ter  homes,  better  .schools,  and  better  churches. 

(■>■  To  pave  the  way  fur  eflective,  intelligent  cooperation 
l',\-  hreakmg  down  the  narrow  inch'vidualism  of  the  farmer 
:"id  by  bringing  him  into  contact  with  his  fellows. 


11; 

■Ir 


184 


AGRirri/nRAi,  f.dc  vno.v 


The  farnwrs'  instiliitr  is  a  mohilr  ari.l  trmi)orary  in 
stiliili.m.  It  i„i,y  !«•,  and  ,.n»-ii  is.  curivni.-,!  in  j,  ,lay  anc 
lasts  as  Umu-  NotwitlistancIiriK  its  it.ii)n)mptii  and  cpht-ni 
eral  chanutcr.  liowmcr.  il  is  pn.hal.it-  that  it  will  ••oritinu. 
t(»  Ik-  an  iiiiporlani  aKcnty  in  Hit-  ixlucation  of  the  adull 
farmer. 


THK    FAKMKKS'    INSTITt  TK    IJXTfHKK 

Much  dis<iissi(,n  lias  Invn  Kivcn  to  the  prol.Icni  of  thf 
ty{X'  of  sjH'aker  Ik-sI  fitted  for  institute  work.  It  is  an 
open  question  whether  the  term  "K^turer"  should  l)c 
ai)plied  to  this  speaker,  for  the  farmer  n-cpiires  teaching? 
rather  than  l«>eturinK.  The  teacher  of  the  farmers'  institute 
has  ^rn-af  res|KUisil,ilities,  arising'  Inith  fronj  the  nature  of 
the  [)rol)l(>ms  with  which  he  .leals.  and  fn.m  the  character 
of  the  audience  he  addresses.  His  audience  is  of  a  difFicult 
km.l.  It  is  compoM'(j  of  men  and  women  of  maturity  who 
are  experienced  farmers,  and  many  «>f  them  know  as'much 
of  the  subject  on  which  he  i.s  si)eakin«  as  he  diRvs  himself. 
They  are  reserv( d,  con,scr\ative.  and  loath  to  change  longi 
estal)lished  method.s. 

Whatever  other  education  the  speaker  mav  liave  had, 
he  nmst  have  ha.l  the  i)ractical  management  of  a  farm,' 
mcluding  the  paying  of  the  hills.  T\w  ol.l  tyi)eof  si)eaker 
had  to  teach  the  farmer  what  the  latter  di.l  not  know.  \ow 
he  has  to  influence  the  farmer  to  do  what  in  manv  case.s 
the  farmer  knows  he  ought  to  do.  and  indicate  why  and 
how  it  should  lu'  done.   Hailey  s;iys:  — 

We  must  develop  a  new  kind  of  institute  man,  unlike 
Oie  college  prnf,-.ss,.r  on  tlie  one  hand  and  the  s<M-aIle.l 
praetieai  farmer  on  the  other.  This  man  nuist  he  train«-«J 
for  this  kni.l  of  work  a.s  carefully  a.s  other  men  are  traimnl 
to  hr  ehemKsLs  or  enpn.HTs.  He  sliould  liv,-  for  at  lea.st  F)art 
of  the  year  on  the  land,  and  he  should  also  hv  eonm>et»><l  with 
an  mstitiition  that  can  k.H>p  him  in  touch  with  the  Ix.st  and 
the  laf.st  information.  In  other  words,  he  should  he  a  farmer 
as  Will  as  a  student,  and  a  student  as  well  as  a  farmer. 


FARMEKS-   INSTITITES  ih.-. 

Tlic  qiialifi(ati..n.s  (lrriian<lr(l  ,.f  the  instit.itr  sprak.r 
ar-  prol,al.ly  ...orr  rxa.  tir,;;  U.a,.  tlu.v  rr.,uirf.|  fr.„n  otl.rr 
|Hil.lKs|H>akrr.s.    H,.  „,„,.|  U-  both  in.lru.tivr  an.]  ....t.-r- 
laminjr.    On    this  rcnk    many  .s,H>ak<T.s  hav,-   split      'J|,e 
f.inn.rs    insl.tuh-  nuist   not  U-  turnrd  int..  a  vau.l.ville 
>linw.  nnth.-r  must  it  U-  jjivcn  u  chapter  fr„n.  a  s<  i.-i.titir 
tr.  MliM-.    1  hr  institiito  in  its  inception  was  infcn.h.l  lar^'cly 
<"  <"tcrta.n  the  fanner.  The  program  ha.l  to  c.ntain  s.,m,:. 
I.H,.,'  that  wo.ihl  hrin^'  him  out,  even  if  fn.m  curiositv  o„lv 
I'l't  ll.at  time  .s  rapi.lly  passing,  an.l  the  farmer  who  n..\v' 
.■inci..|s  d.K's  so  quite  generally  for  the  puriK).sc  of  getting 
N.iutthing  to  ai)p!y  on  his  own  farm. 

Some  of  the  qualiiications  neede.1  in  the  institute  sj)eaker 
are  ;ui  follows:  — 

"t   RtpnUitinn    in  his  tncn  rommnrnt,,.  —  So  s,H-aker 
vWinse  standing  at  home  will  not  h,-ar  the  most  rigid  in- 
V.  ^ti^'uimn  should  ever  be  allowed  on  the  institute  plM- 
f.Tm.    I  „le,s.s  he  is  »  su.-<-,.ssful  farm.T.  his  work  un  the 
I'latform  will  not  Ik-  ein^tive.    In  the  State  of  Michigan 
|HTs„„s  suggested  as  s,K-akers  are  visitcl  l.y  one  of  the 
|.n,f,.ss.,rs  of   the  Jigric-ultural   .-ollege.   and' unless   their 
u..rk  and  farms  are  found  to  Ik-  m.,re  than  ordinar^•  they 
an-  not  uivitc-d.    UTien  the  s,K-aker  is  known  to  U-'a  su.- 
<<  ->ful  farmer,  he  is  listened  to  with  n-s,Kvt  an.l  (-onfuh-rn-e 
(/')  Snenhfi,  training.  -  \n  individual  with  a  thorough 
•^  initifi(-  trammg  in  agri(-ulture  has  a  dcM-ided  advantage 
"v.r  f  lu-  man  not  .so  trained,  and.  other  things  U-ing  equal. 
•^iK'uld  always  be  chosen. 

(r}_  Ahility  to  teach.  — \  man  may  r)os.ses3  the  two 
previously  mentionetl  qualifications  and  yet  lack  this  es- 
•S'Mtud.  It  is  but  a  truism  to  s^iy  that  many  men  have 
kriowicMlge  which  they  are  unable  to  impart,  .\bility  to 
t-ach.  not  hx-ture.  in  a  forceful  manner  Lj  one  of  the  main 


■-.'Uti; 


tis  in  the  institute  s'K>aker. 


lia\'i' 


/i    7W/.  —  Ever>'bo<Jy   ki.ows   what    tact   is,  but  few 
liad  the  courage  to  define  it.  The  institute  sjK-aker. 


1 


!»l 


I  hi; 


.\(iin(  ii.n  i{\F.  K?)rr\Tio\ 


unlike  llir  r-i.!I.yc  profi-ssor.  has  fur  hi-;  audiniro  mm  n 
iinalrcady  hall  liii- w  ill,  llir  prnM.M.^  ..f  I.f,-.  aii.l  in  tna 

ins|aiirTsl|,.-yliavrakriuw|,-,|^',nf|.H;,|,„ii(|ili,,(,s,,f  wlii 
llic  s|M>ak<T  is  (jiiilr  i.n.l.al.ly  iuMiorant.  In.lf-r  flirs«.  ,• 
«unist;,ii,  r,  I  he  iMi|>iI>  may  U-  Ik-II.t  al>l.>  to  tcarli  than  I 
tra.li.T.  'riic  s|,,-ak.r.  if  li.-  [...s>.>m.s  farf.  will  |„.  „1,|,. 
<lra\v  this  .•xiMTinuv  from  his  au.Ji.Muv  iiii<i  thus  make 
ha|.|.y  tomhinalioii  „f  his  Mi.iitific  kn<)\vlr<l^'«.  and  th. 
ItMid  «'xiM'ri('ii(('. 

('•)  (inirml  ,/Nnlitir.t.  \  pleasing'  |HTs«.nality.  a  r<M 
v..i<<..  an  attractive  platform  ajiiK-arance.  and  ton^'.iiiali 
arc  also  dcsiraliK*. 


MKTllol*    OK    (1I()(»SIN(;    INSTITI    IK    I.KfTIHKHS 

l'oliti<al    <()iisi,irrations    should     nrv.r    influence    f| 

<  hni.e  of  a  sj.eaker.  nor  should  the  institute  platform  I 

availal.le  to  those  who  have  a  pro<hi<t  t,,  aiivertise  or  sol 

Farmers  in   the  past,  in   too  many  instances,  have  he 

loaded  uj>  with  sul..s<rij>tiou  IxM.ks  they  did  not  want  an 

nia.hines  for  which  they  lia<l  no  economic  use.    In  sotii 

of  the  .ountries  of  Kuro|M-  the  speakers  arechoM-n  hy  ron 

jxlllive  examination;  and  it  has  Ixt-n  prr.posed  to' ado] 

the  mctli.Ml  ill  this  country.    While  this  plan  mij^ht  w.,r 

su<cessfully.  ther.>  are  many  tliin^is  that  cannot  be  teste, 

l)y  an   examimition.    The  following  amusing  account    i 

^'ivcn  of  a  method  once  tried  in  New  York  State  to  .sckt 

sjn'akers  for  the  institutes:  '  - 

The  pr.'Nsiin-  for  jx-sitinns  was  sourKcrit  that  thcdirtvto 
cncnved  tlirplan  of  havinj-  th.-  applicants  meet  at  our  sUf 
expcrnuciit  station  on  a  ^ivt-n  day.  and  tiu-re  deliver  the! 
addn-ssrs  l.efore  the  .i.'a.i  of  the  aKri.witural  eoll.>;e.  the  di 
reciors  of  fanners'  iii>tilut.'s.  and  oM.t  lecturers  on  the  force 
.VLout  eijjht  vi.'tiins.'aiiieout  to  the  >laii^'lit(  r.  Kach  in  hi. 
tnni  delivcretj  his  a.idress   and   afterwards  wa.s   duly  ques 

'   A,i.,ri,a„  \,<,„.uiti„n  ,,f  rartn.Ts'  In.titut.-  Wnrkrrs.    Pn^.v.lin.M  ,. 
I. .1.  Annual  Mfcl.ng.   Hulk  tin  iiSS.   I  ait^d  States  l^rpurfuicnt  of  \«ri 


•"•"-.I  l,v  thus.,  in  «H.„,lan.--.  Tl,.-  la.J  s,...ak      Mr..v...|  ,„ 
"■a«..,.,u.    .f,,.,,a,,,.H|farm.T.  ml I,.  ,.|,.,|  |,„.,   \\. 

'■;•;''-•'.•  «H..  u.lnn.M.  .lay  of  ,p...t.  l.a.l  m^.,..y:::^^^^^ 

.'flu,  ,ul...r.|,na.,.s  ,..u„„..,,a.on,,M  l...,u...„  s..„....,f  , 
n-.n,  >.l.,..,.  an,l  «H,ll.,.aM..  Af,..r.l..,,..,a,,.r/u^ 

•■    .Mtl,..,r«.ats.na...,.r.-,K..s,ti.,„,h..s..t.m>«..r..|.r..n«| 

I-  a.i.lr..ss.  wlu.l.  was  as  i,,,...,.,..,,.  as  tl..-  n./r.-ln.t„.„ 

It...    iH.ar.Ts   u.T-  ...nv.ils,.!    «ith    lauK'l.t.r   .lurin,-  fl.,- 
p  ,r,.  ......  I,..  «as  sp..akn„.  n.....,h>,an.l.nK  ll..i    p.  1    ■ 

'I"    ■    r-,|.,r  ,..,uM  appnv.a...  tlu-  l«s,  >p,.ak,.r  n.-.r.-  thai, 

.."y.....r..f    ,sl,,.ar..rsf I.-M  in  his  .Lk..  a.  th.-        " 

"  •    t.rfr..„.    |...fan,H.r-s..f..  ,„  ,vl.i..|,  sh..  pp.,..,,.s|  v,,..,. 

'■    1  r.r    sa.Mn«  I.,-  «as  a  n„s,.ral.l,.  faiiur..  us  a  fann.T  a„.| 
'I-   r.-,lf.,f  tlust.Muastl.at    n.,t  .,„.•  ..f  tl...  appl,,.,  ,ts 

The  institute  leeturesl.i,,  must  Ik-  rais,,!  to  the  .li.M.itv 

-  a  permanent  profession,  an.l  the  s,H.akers  should  U- ,,,;. 
[''••y.-l  .lunuK  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Thev  shoul.i 
l-|.a.-l  for  the.r  s<.rviees  the  e,,uivalent  of  what  is  pai.f 
'"  -.IleKes  and  universities  for  work  requiring  tah-nt  an.l 

raunn«  o    a  si„.ih»r  kind.   Only  l,y  these-  means  will  n>en 

-  "Hluee<l  adequately  to  ,,repare  the„,s«.lves.  S«,  Ion«  a, 
<t-  praet.ee  is  to  employ  institute  speakers  for  only  a  few 
^-;«ks  „,  the  year.  .s<.  |o„«  will  their  work  hv  larp-lv  in- 
"••<   no    Hn.l  fad  to  ae<.on.,>lish  much  radical  improve- 

"'•'iit  in  farming  oi)erations. 

LOCALIZATION-   OK    INSTITITK    WOHK 

'n-r.'  is  a  marked  tenden.-y  to  centralize  institute 
^-"■k  One  or  two  large  meetings  a  year  may  1k>  ne.,.^ 
->   to    -enthuse--  the  people,  hut  for  puroosc-s  of  d.-fini.. 


I4t 


188 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


instruc!,.,,,  thoy  arc  useless.  When  those  conventions  are 
li<-l<l  111  nntrul  |)la,es.  tluy  are  most  lik«'Iy  to  attract  tlu.se 
ul.o  are  already  progressive.  The  proJ.le.n  to-<lav  is  the 
apathetic  and  (he  indifferent  farmer,  the  ninety-"^six  jht 
cent  uho  do  not  at  present  attend  institute  meetings.  The 
purpose  should  Ix- to  take  information  direct  to  the  doors 
of  the  men  svho  have  not  yet  V(,luntarily  come  under  the 
"'f.ucnce  of  the  institutes.  The  only  wav  to  reach  these 
J>cople  IS  t(,  take  the  institute  to  them.  The  aim  must  he 
to  rea<Ji  the  man  who  is  in  most  need  of  assistance,  and  for 
this  puriK.se  a  series  of  small  mt>etings  should  l>e  held  in 
out-of-the-way  places. 

^    The  institutes  should  Ik;  mana^-ed  lar^^ely  by  the  people 
m  the  locality.    In  the  past  there  has  prol.ahlv  been  too 
nuich  slate  control.    As  a  rule,  the  lM^st  results  are  oh- 
tamed  l>y  loc^l  cooperation,  local  enthusiasm,  and  loc-al 
nKina^cment.    Owing  to  the  im,.ortance  of  the  farmer's 
work   to  the  welfare  of    the  nation,  the  State  has  largelv 
assumed  the  financial  responsibility  for  the  institutes  and 
the  farmer  has  In-en  getting  something  for  nothing     The 
thing  most  valued  is  that  which  comes  through  conscious 
effort.    I  eoj.le  take  pride  in  an  institution  whi(-li  is  an  ex- 
pression. ,n  part  at  least,  of  their  own  work.   In  all  kinds 
of  activity  f'.r  agricultural  betterment  it  is  found  that  local 
and  mdividual  work  is  most  effective;  that  at  least  one 
person  who  knows  the  community  conditions  and  needs 
must  act  as  loc;il  agent;  that  this  agent  must  be.  whenever 
possible,  a  trained  agriculturist;  and  that  community  in- 
vestment IS  desirable. 

In  the  Province  of  Ontario,  where  the  organization  of 
farmers  institutes  has  received  much  attention,  each  local 
assonat.on  ,s  ,'mpow(T«-d  to  charge  twenty-five  cents  for 
vMh  .Member  who  wishes  to  afliliate.  In  return  for  this 
;"""'i'l  I>aymcnt.  the  institute  guarantees  at  least  .ix  meet- 
n.f^s  m  f  lu>  electoral  district  during  the  year.  In  some  c^.ses 
there  arc  as  many  as  twelve  or  fifteen  meetings.   In  ad<Ii- 


FARMERS'  IXSTITITES 


189 


tioii  to  this,  the  contributors  rpct'ive  hy  mail  thv  report 
of  the  s.iperintendent  of  fiiriners' institutes,  coritainin-;  tlie 
iulilresses  of  the  .si)e:iker.s  (iuriiij,'  the  |)rece(linj,'  year.  They 
also  receive  the  various  rei)orts  of  the  Department  of  A^ri- 
<  iilture.  sucli  as  the  reports  of  the  dairymen's  association, 
tlir  fruit-^'rowers"  association,  the  good-roads  ass(x,-iation, 
and  the  hkc. 

THE   CHARAtTFJl   OF   THE    pnofillAM 

Practically  every  farmers'  institute  lias  attempted  to  do 
too  much  in  the  time  at  its  disitosal.  T«k)  many  subjects 
liavc  lK>en  treated,  and  coris<'(pienily  no  single  one  has 
been  dealt  with  comi)n  hensively.  The  answer  to  this  criti- 
cism has  Ihhti  tliat  tlie  mission  of  the  institute  is  not  so 
nm<h  the  systematic  leaching  of  agriculture  as  the  arous- 
nig  of  interest  in  agriculture  and  tlie  inspiring  of  men  and 
women  with  a  desire  for  country  life  and  counfrj'  occui)a- 
tions.  But  the  purpose  of  public  institutions  changes  with 
the  lapse  of  years,  and  though  this  nuiy  have  In-en  the 
nccrssary  purpose  in  years  gone  by,  that  purpose  should 
no  longer  l)e  considered  primary.  The  primary  pur|)ose 
should  now  l>e  to  give  definite  information  along  certain 
sijecified  lines  —  information  which  can  at  once  be  put  to 
practical  ai)i)lication  on  the  farm.  This  cannot  i>e  d«me 
with  the  multiplicity  of  subjects  that  now  occupy  the 
average  institute  program. 

It  is  gratifying  to  note  a  growing  tendency  on  the  j)art 
of  those  who  have  the  direction  of  the  institutes  to  limit  the 
\M)rk  of  any  one  sessicm,  or  any  one  day,  to  some  definite 
toi)ic.  It  is  far  more  profitable,  and  will  result  in  nun  h 
lictter  practice,  to  deal  intensively  with  some  on?  topic  of 
iriip<trtance  to  the  locality  than  to  sjHnid  the  time  in  a 
superficial  manner  on  several  topics.  It  is  largely  owing 
to  this  superficiality  that  the  work  of  the  institutes  has 
not  had  results  comm-Misurale  with  the  ellorls  that  have 
1m»'ii  i)ut  forth. 


I'M 


AGRICl'LTURAL  EDUCATION 


There  is  a  deciiled  tendeiu-y  in  many  iii.slitutes  to  lay  too 
niiuh  stress  on  ainusenieiits  or  enterlainineiits.  Li  every 
institute  eontinuin^'  for  more  than  one  day,  it  is  an  excel- 
lent feature  to  close  the  procetnlin^^'s  with  a  concert  when 
one  of  hij,'h  order  can  Ix-  iirran^ed.  It  should  he  made  the 
means  of  ac(juainting  the  j/cople  witii  the  In-st  music,  the 
liest  literature,  and  the  hest  pictincs,  and  the  ordinary 
vaudeville  features  should  he  rij,ndly  excluded.  The  pos- 
siliilities  of  raising;  the  ideals  of  country  life  through  work 
of  this  character  are  almost  unlimited  and  should  he 
utilized  to  their  fullest  ext"nt. 

The  orijanization  of  tlw  fnrci's.  — The  jjeneral  organiza- 
tion of  the  institute  forces  should  Ik*  perfected.  Even  in 
Ontario,  where  t!ic  institutes  have  heen  lar^'cly  dev<'loped, 
the  promoters  are  not  satisfied  with  the  results  and  are 
constantly  striving'  foi  Ix-tter  thing's.  This  i)rovince  is  di- 
vided ii'.to  ninety-four  districts,  corresijondin;;  somewhat 
to  tiie  electoral  di>lricts  of  ihc  liiited  States.  In  each  dis- 
trict there  is  a  iKTuianent  farmers'  ir.stitute,  with  regular 
ollieers  and  a  hoard  of  directors,  one  at  ieast  re|)resenting 
each  township  of  the  district.  If  proper  care  is  exercistHi 
in  the  choice  of  the  directors,  each  municipality  will  thus 
liave  an  active  jment  whose  services  can  he  called  upon  to 
promote  the  institute  in  his  particular  hx'ality. 

Each  institute,  according  to  the  Ontario  system,  ruist 
hold  at  least  six  meetings  during  the  year.  The  place  of 
meeting  is  left  to  the  directors.  The  i!ieetings  may  he  held 
in  oiw  center,  if  desired,  or  the  jjlace  of  meeting  may  he 
change<l  as  fretpicntly  as  is  thought  advisahle.  From  the 
fir.^t  to  the  twentieth  of  June,  each  of  the  s(,cieties  holds  its 
animal  meeting.  This  is  generally  of  a  business  character, 
although  in  many  instances  a  speaker  is  sent  from  the  De- 
partment of  .Vgriculture.  At  this  time  the  husiness  of  the 
year  is  transactt-d  and  the  reports  are  sent  to  the  sui)er- 
intendent  of  institutes.  These  reports  must  show  the  offi- 
cers and  director.^,  a  list  of  the  meetings  held  during  the 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES 


191 


year,  a  list  of  the  meetings  it  is  desired  to  arrange  for  the 
iK\t  fall,  winter,  and  spring,  and  the  moneys  received  and 
(  \l)ended.  Each  local  scK-iety  receives  twenty-five  dollars 
from  the  government,  contingent  upon  a  like  amount  Ix-ing 
idiitrihuted  by  the  local  county  council.  In  addition,  each 
iiu'iiiUt  pays  twenty-five  cents.  The  crntral  department 
iii>i^ls  upon  proper  advertisement.  A  prngram  must  l>e 
I  printed  at  least  one  week  before  the  mtH'titig.  un«l  (•o|)ies 
must  be  sent  to  every  sch(K)l-teaclier  and  lie  well  distributed 
throughout  the  neighborhood. 

During  the  month  of  .June,  each  institute,  or  .sometimes 
three  or  four  acting  in  conjunction,  runs  an  excursion  to 
tlie  agricultural  college,  and  every  year  more  than  50,0(K) 
fanners  thus  take  the  opi)ortunity  of  seeing  the  best  live- 
>to(k.  agricultural  appliances,  and  metlKnls  of  cultivation 
about  which  they  may  ha\e  heard  at  the  in>titute  meetings, 
'liie  farmers  are  guidtnl  through  the  buililings  and  grounds 
by  the  professors  of  the  coUi'ge,  ami  full  explanations  of 
the  various  features  and  enterprises  are  given.  The  On- 
tario i)lan  of  organization  seems  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
>it nation.  I^nal  control  aad  initiative  are  s«'cured,  ami 
the  whole  work  is  under  the  direction  of  an  ofhcer  of  the 
>tate. 

The  lenyth  of  the  in.'<litnle  session.  —  In  the  rnite<l 
States,  the  length  of  the  institute  sessi(ms  varies  from  one 
in  three  days  in  the  following  projKirtion:  70.1  per  cent 
la>t  one  day,  '-iG.5  per  cent  last  two  days,  ami  SA  |H»r  cent 
<  niitinue  three  or  mon*  days.  The  average  numlK-r  of  ses- 
sions held  at  each  institute  is  4.6.  In  districts  where  the 
farms  are  widely  s<attered  and  where  the  people  are  un- 
at(  ii^tomed  to  attend,  the  (me-<lay  meetings  are  nei-essary. 
They  are,  however,  wasteful  of  time  and  money.  They 
incur  the  exj^enditure  of  nuich  time  for  the  mininuim 
of  results.  They  are  probably  necessary'  as  a  preliminary 
>tep  to  the  establishment  of  the  two-<lay  in>tilutes,  wliii  h 
an-  relatively  much  more  economical.   The  three-day  in- 


J 


192 


AGRICULTl'RAL  EDUCATION 


stitutc  is  the  one  in  which  the  teacher  can  ^ive  the  highest 
prude  of  instruction  ami  do  the  most  real  g<Kj<J.  It  does 
not  necessitate  any  more  travel  than  the  one-day  institute. 
The  instruction  is  more  definite,  and  while  it  readies  fewer 
fariiKTs,  this  is  probably  more  than  ctniiiiensated  for  hy 
the  fact  that  the  |)ersons  who  make  the  necessary  sacrifice 
of  lime  and  money  to  attend  during;  the  three  days  are 
more  likely  to  put  in  practice  what  is  tauj^ht. 

In  arranging,'  a  program  for  a  three-days  institute  the 
subjects  slioiild  be  connected  so  that  the  instruction  for 
the  thriHi  days  will  be  complete  as  far  as  it  goes;  hut  each 
day's  work  should  be  complete  in  itself,  so  that  those  who 
are  able  to  attend  only  one  day  will  1k'  able  to  acqTiire  some 
delinile  knowledge.  The  gradual  departure  of  the  farme.s 
will  leave  in  attendance  on  the  third  day  those  who  are 
capable  of  undertaking  further  study,  and  these  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of  during  the  time  between  the  mef>tings. 
Particular  care  should  \w  taken  to  supply  them  w  ith  bul- 
letins fron>  the  college  and  ex|)eriment  stations.  These 
are  the  peo|)le,  also,  who  may  be  induced  to  attend  a  mov- 
able scluH)l,  or  to  take  short  courses  at  the  college  or  high 
school. 

It  seems  i)robable  that  the  three  tyix's  of  institutes  will 
continue  to  be  held.  The  n(H>ds  and  economic  comlitions  of 
the  districts  and  the  character  of  the  farmers  inhabiting 
them  will  determine  which  of  the  tyi^es  is  lx;st  in  any  par- 
ticular community. 

The  77ielh(Klj<  nf  teaching  to  be  adopted.  —  Evcrj'  address 
delivered  from  the  institute  platform  should  1)0  carefully 
j)roparetl.  T(m)  often  the  atldresses  show  that  little  effort 
has  bet>u  male  in  this  direction.  Those  who  attend  should 
be  encouraged  to  take  notes.  In  the  State  of  Michigan 
note-books  are  distributed,  and  every  one  is  urged  to  take 
note.>  of  the  proceedings.  IVrhaps  a  better  meth«xl  would 
be  the  <listribution  of  a  printed  synopsis  of  the  lectures  in 
note  form,  with  space  iu  the  margins  for  additional  notes. 


F.VRMERS'  INSTITUTES 


103 


If  these  were  printed  on  curds  and  proix?rly  punched,  they 
could  Ik'  filed  together,  and  would  soon  l)ecoiiie  a  valuable 
collection  of  agricultural  information.  Charts,  models, 
experiments,  and  blackl)oard  illustrations  should  Ije  em- 
l)loye<l  when  possible.  The  States  of  Ixiuisiana,  Okla- 
homa, antl  Minnesota  rejxjrt  the  successful  use  of  motion 
pictures.  In  the  case  of  jiicturcs  of  all  kinds,  the  "  before" 
and  "after"  method  .should  be  used. 

No  other  institution  has  yet  l)een  devised  that  could 
have  done  the  work  that  has  l)een  accomplislied  by  the 
dinners'  institute,  and  with  reorganization  along  the  lines 
suggested  it  will  continue  to  reach  tho.se  in  need  of  instruc- 
tion and  to  exert  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  practice  of 
farming. 


'  j 


« 


FARMERS     CLCBS 

In  addition  to  the  fcjimal  institute,  small  clubs,  con- 
sisting of  from  eight  to  twelve  families  joined  together  for 
sixial,  educational,  and  business  purposes,  might  be  or- 
ganized. Such  clubs  would  render  it  i>ossible  to  make  a 
closer  study  of  any  one  topic,  to  carr>-  out  practical  farm 
ex[)eriments,  to  unite  for  such  purposes  as  buying  and  sell- 
ing, to  meet  for  stx-ial  enjoyment,  and  in  general  to  exert 
a  l)eneficial  influence  throughout  the  neighborhood.  These 
clubs  should  be  affiUated  with  one  another  and  with  the 
institute  organization. 

Such  a  system  wouUl  render  it  fmssible  to  reach  most  of 
the  farming  people  of  a  state,  and  agricultural  information 
could  l)e  disseminated  regularly  and  topics  of  importance 
suggested  for  discussion  sinmltaneously  at  all  the  institutes 
and  clubs  held  throughout  the  state.  Care  should  lie  taken 
that  these  clubs  do  not  Ix'cvme  vehicles  for  gossip,  the 
dist^ussion  of  party  politics,  or  the  accentuation  of  rural 
prejudices.  Th^y  should  undertake  some  definite  work, 
such  as  breeding  and  care  of  horses  and  stf)ck,  and  :«ed- 
judgiug,  advocacy  of  good  roads,  or  better  schools.  Twenty 


1 


I  i'i 


104 


AGRICULTIRAL  EDUCATION 


men  orj^jinizcd  in  a  hxality  for  these  jirid  other  purposes 
mi>,'ht  in  a  short  time  revohitionize  the  loeality,  and  ac- 
complish more  than  the  large  formal  institute  meetings 
from  which  they  sj)ring. 


TIIK    CIHANGE 

Ahnost  from  the  iM-ginning  of  agriculture  in  this  coun- 
try there  hu\c  IxH-n  farmers'  organizations  of  one  kind  or 
another,  but  prior  to  1870  there  did  not  exist  in  the  United 
States,  a  single  farmers'  organization  in  the  sense  in  which 
the  term  is  now  uridersttMnl.  The  farmers  thems«'lve>'  have 
always  l>een  the  last  to  see  the  necessity  for  combination, 
and  many  do  not  see  it  yet.  The  first  MK-ieties  were  formed 
as  a  result  of  the  far-sighte«l  vision  of  statesmen  who  saw 
that  agriculture  was  to  be  the  economic  basis  of  the  new 
nation,  rather  than  from  any  expression  of  opinion  from 
the  farmers  themselves  as  to  the  need  for  such  organiza- 
tion. 

The  early  history  of  the  grange.  —  Probably  the  best 
known  farmers'  organization  and  the  one  that  has  had  the 
widest  influence  is  the  Grange,  or  the  Patrons  of  Hus- 
bandry. Although  this  organizjition  has.  with  |)eriods  of 
depression,  been  in  operation  since  18<)7.  and  it  stands  in 
the  forefront  to-day  as  the  representative  of  agricultural 
interests  in  the  United  States,  thousands  of  farmers  as  yet 
know  nothing  of  it. 

In  ISC.G,  Oliver  Kelly,  a  native  of  Boston  who  had  settled 
in  Minnesota,  was  apjM)inted  by  the  national  government 
to  make  a  tour  of  inspection  through  the  devastated  South 
for  the  puriHjse  of  .swuring  adequate  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  then  existing  and  the  resources  available  for  re- 
construction and  iK'tterment.  As  a  result  of  this  tour,  he 
was  convinced  that  the  only  means  by  which  harmony 
could  be  re  lored  was  by  agricultural  coojK-ration.  With 
six  other  |)ersons  whom  he  had  inlereste<l.  he  drew  up  the 
grange  organization.   It  was  intended  to  advance  the  cause 


FAIlMEllS-   IXSTITITES  195 

(.f  cdiication  among  fanners  and  to  niltivate  a  spirit  of 
iwacc  and  hrotherluxMi  k'twcon  tlu>  North  and  tho  Sxitli. 
There  is  now  no  need  for  the  second  j)urpose,  hut  the 
hrst  IS  still  the  basis  on  nhich  the  grange  conducts  its 
work. 

Early  in  the  histor>-  of  the  order,  a  "Declaration  of  In- 
defwndence"  was  drawn  up,  which  is  still  in  force.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  amount  of  material  on  agricultural 
iiiucaiion  and  rural  uplift  that  has  In-en  i)ul.lished  in  recent 
years,  this  dcxument  has  not  U>en  surpass<'d  in  its  dear 
and  forceful  enunciation  of  vital  |)rin(iples.  and  it  might 
NM'II  Ik-  adopted  as  th.-  <harter  and  guide  of  all  workers  in 
the  rural  field.  The  first  grange  was  organized  in  lK<i8.  at 
Fredonia.  <  'hautauc,ua  County.  New  York,  and  it  is  still  in 
active  o|)eration.  Hy  1873,  more  than  ^27,00()  granges  had 
heen  <'stablishetl,  with  a  memlK-rship  of  more  than  half  a 
million. 

This   mushroom-like  growth   wa.s  nearly  fatal   to  the 
future  ust>fulness  of  the  organization.    A  large  number  of 
those  who  joined  entirely  misconceived  the  purposes  for 
which  the  organization  had  l>een  formed.   'I'hey  sought  for 
iinme«liate  Hnancial  gain  and  joined  for  "what  there  was 
m  it."  Others  ex()ected  to  make  it  a  L-ulder  by  which  fhey 
•otild  climb  to  political  office  and  distuiction.    The  ord(T 
was  unable  to  assimilate  the  rapid  increase  in  membership, 
to  educate  its  memlK-rs  as  to  its  true  purjK.se,  and  to  train' 
them  in  patience  and  self-c-oritrol  in  their  efforts  to  achieve 
that   f)uq>o.se.    As  a  result,  hundreds  of  the  granges  es- 
tablished at  this  time  failed,  and  the  influence  of  tlics<. 
failures  c-ontinues  to  the  i)resent  day.    Many  persons  are 
under  the  impression  that  the  grange  is  dead.    Hut  the 
grange  survived  the  set-back,  and  now  has  an  established 
J.oMtion  among  farmers'  s«,cieties  and  educational  agencies. 
The  organization  of  the  grange.  ~  The  unit  of  organiza- 
tion is  the  local  grange,  which  is  supposed  to  include  one 
t'wn-hip.  Eaoh  local  grange  meets  at  least  twice  a  month. 


f  i 


H 


'  i 


196 


AGRICULTUILVL  EDUCATION 


These  local  granges  often  organize  into  a  larger  unit  known 
as  the  "l'orn«)na  grange,"  whicli  must  meet  at  least  quar- 
terly. These  I'oinniia  granges,  in  turn,  are  affiliated  with 
the  state  grange,  an<l  this,  again,  with  the  national  grange, 
which  is  the  official  head  of  the  whole  organization.  The 
annual  sessions  t)f  the  naticmal  grange  generally  last  ahout 
t«'ii  days.  There  has  l)een  organized  a  juvenile  grange, 
which  has  great  promise.  The  grange,  like  other  .secret 
orders,  has  a  ritual  which  is  said  to  Ix;  "a  l)eautiful  and  im- 
pressive ceremony,  permeated  throughout  by  an  exalted 
religious  .spirit  and  a  strong  love  of  nature." 

The  work  of  the  (jrniuje.  —  Dy  its  local  units  and  affilia- 
tions, the  grat'  'c  can  easily  cover  the  whole  state,  and  it 
has  successfully  established  intimate  relationships  among 
its  branches.  "To  enumerate  the  achievements  of  the 
grange  would  be  to  recall  the  progress  of  agriculture  during 
the  last  third  of  a  (rntury."  Some  of  the  measures  that 
owe  their  origin  and  development,  at  lea.st  in  jwrt,  to 
grange  iiiffuence  are.  the  National  Dejiartment  of  Agri- 
culture, the  State  agricultural  colleges  and  e.\iH<riment 
stations,  pure-food  laws,  rural  free  delivery,  and  the  In- 
terstate Coi'imerce  Commission.  The  grange  exerts  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  politic.d  inffuence,  but  of  the  Ix^tter  sort. 
Probably  the  most  important  function  of  the  grange  to- 
day is  its  educational  and  social  work,  and  in  this  agri- 
culture is  particularly  emi)hasized.  Most  state  granges 
have  standing  committws  on  education  which  study  the 
educ^itional  conditions  of  the  state. 

One  of  the  distinctive  features  of  the  organization  is  that 
it  \\.l^  the  first  of  the  fraternal  orders  to  give  woman  her 
full  and  i)roi).T  recognition.  Many  of  the  chief  officers  are 
women.  Every  delegate  to  both  the  state  and  the  national 
granges  is  a  double  delegate,  as  it  were,  a  man  and  his  wife 
or  a  woman  and  her  husband  constituting  a  delegate. 

Meetings  are  usually  hcKl  on  alternate  Saturday  after- 
noons in  the  grange  halls,  which  most  granges  possess. 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES 


197 


Many  of  tljcse  halls  ar«^  simply  and  artislirully  furnishrd 
with  chairs,  tables,  riij,'s,  iKKikcascs,  and  an  «)rgan.  A 
dinin«-r<)<>ni  and  a  Wfil-f(|uip|H'd  kitchen  are  sometimes 
added.  At  every  meeting,  in  addition  to  |)aiMTs,  debates, 
nmsi<'al  numl)ers,  and  the  reading  of  tiie  ritual,  a  period  is 
allotted  to  open  discussion. 

the  dangers  to  be  crakded  against  in  bur.\l 
oiu;amzatu)Ns 
All  rural  organizations  are  jjoculiarly  liable  to  two 
dangers.  The  first  is  allowing  those  not  interested  in  agri- 
niltiire  and  rural  i)roblenis  to  join  and.  in  some  cases,  to 
take  an  active  part  in  the  management  of  the  organization. 
This  dcjes  not  mean  that  meiiilK'rship  shall  l)e  restricted  to 
those  already  engaged  in  farming  oi)erations,  but  that  none 
shall  bo  allowed  to  join  who  are  not  vitally  conc-erned  in 
the  solution  of  rural  problems.  The  second  danger  is  al- 
lowing these  ass<M-iations  to  Ix.-  controlled  l)y  small  cliques 
for  their  s{)ecial  benefit.  Ass«K-iations  and  clubs  in  rural 
<listricts  must  never  lx>  allowed  to  lx»come  the  means  by 
which  locid  feuds  and  prejudici's  are  |KTiK>tuated.  It  is 
true  that  the  improvement  of  agricultural  mcth(Mls  and  the 
renovation  of  rural  life  will  have  to  come  largely  through 
the  exertions  of  the  rural  dwellers  themst>lves.  No  more 
imj)ortant  agencies  can  Iw  devised  to  .•ici-omplish  these 
ends  than  the  farmers'  institutes,  farmers'  clubs,  granges, 
and  organizations  of  a  similar  kind. 

THE   VEDERATION   OF    FORCES 

In  addition  to  the  organizations  that  have  l)oen  men- 
tioned, there  are  many  others,  all  having  for  their  object 
the  general  improvement  of  rural  conditions.  The  year- 
book of  the  United  States  Department  of  .Vgriculture 
devotes  twenty-four  jiages  to  the  enumeration  of  the  vari- 
ous agencies  that  have  Ijeen  established  for  the  i)romotion 
of  agriculture.   This  hst  is  admittedly  incomplete,  and  it 


108 


AfJRICn.TniAL  EDICATION 


<l<»os  not  include  n  much  Iarf,'or  nunilnT  of  local  nssocia- 
lioiis;  neither  <l(K's  if  iiicliidc  a  lar^je  nurnl>er  that  have  l)een 
recently  t-stahli^lK-il  to  promote  p-nerai  country-life  move- 
ments, such  as  home  improvement,  (nuntry  church,  sch(M)l 
improvenu'ut,  lihrary  or^'anizations,  and  the  like.  In  every 
state  and  pr<)vince  we  have  the  agricultural  «)lle^'e,  the 
<h'j)artment  of  education,  and  the  departmenl  of  a^Ticul- 
ture  all  taking'  a  hand,  sometimes  in  c<K)pcrati(»n.  hut  more 
often  indciK'ndenlly.  Many  i)rivate  and  semi-privule  cor- 
l>orations  are  also  taking'  un  active  |)art. 

The  mrd  fur  fcdcnidon.  —  There  is  ur^'cnt  need  for  the 
federation  of  all  rural  forces.  On  this  point  the  Country  Life 
Commission  made  a  recommendation  for  "the  hohlinK  of 
local,  state,  and  even  nafi<  ,d  conferences  on  rural  prog- 
ress, <h-si^'ned  to  unite  the  interests  of  educational  orpmi- 
zalions  into  one  forward  movement  for  the  rehuilding  of 
country  life.  Rural  teachers,  lihrarians.  cler^n-men,  editors, 
physicians,  and  others  may  w»l|  unite  with  farmers  in 
studying,'  and  disciissiii;,'  rural  (|Ucstions  in  all  their  as|)ects. 
We  must  in  some  way  unite  ail  interests,  all  or^'anizafions, 
all  individuals  having  any  interest  in  c-ountry  life  in  one 
great  cam|>aign  for  rural  progress." 

Agricultural  organization  is  nuich  more  diflicult  than 
organization  in  other  industries.  The  farmer  has  to  per- 
form many  fiuictions  which  iti  the  industrial  world  are 
performed  l>y  several  men.  He  is  lM)th  em|)loycr  and  em- 
ployee. His  training  has  heen  along  individualistic  lines. 
It  is  difficult  for  him  to  regard  himself  as  a  cooperator;  he 
still  regards  him,s«'lf  as  a  competitor.  Notwithstanding 
all  the  difliculties  that  lie  in  the  i)ath.  there  is  urgent  ne- 
cessity for  the  cffc<'tive  federation  of  all  rural  forces. 

Thr  form  l/ial  fidrrnfion  ma;/  take.  — .Vgricultural  inter- 
ests are  too  numerous  and  tiiverse  to  allow  of  any  one 
single  ol.jecl  heing  made  the  hasis  of  a  national  organiza- 
tion. 'I  he  farmers  of  the  country  camiot  he  organized  into 
a  homogeneous  natiou-widc  association.  When  a  number 


FARMERS"   IN'STITrTES 


109 


(if  fiirtiiors  in  a  (rrtaiii  n'striclfMj  locality  liavp  a  definite 
ol.jot,  ;  •  view,  they  usually  have  no  difficulty  in  orpan- 
izinj;  ad  association  for  the  ucc«ini|)lishnient  of  that  object. 
Hut  this  does  not  necvssarily  mean  that  these  associations 
nee<l  remain  i.solate<l.  In  the  industiiid  world  there  is  a 
multitude  of  trades,  and  this  conditi«m  may  Ik*  aimpared 
with  the  different  hranchc  of  ain'icnlture.  It  has  not  Ijcen 
found  imjiossihlc  to  complete  a  perfect  fctleration  of  the 
workers  in  the  industries,  and  it  should  not  Ix;  iui[)ossil)le 
to  do  the  same  f«jr  apiculture. 

The  American  Fe<leration  of  l^hor  has  shown  the  way 
in  which  this  can  Im?  done.  Kach  trade  in  each  locality  has 
its  separate  union,  and  these  unions  are  fcderate<l  into  a 
complete  whole.  Each  locality  has  the  jKjwer  of  self-gov- 
ernment and  is  independent  so  far  as  its  local  interests 
and  objects  are  concerned.  But  when  the  necessity  for  any 
combined  movement,  either  state,  national,  or  interna- 
tional, arises,  the  orj^anization  is  reiuly  and  in  many  ca.ses 
has  Iwjen  alile  to  do  the  work  retjuired.  If  this  plan  of 
orj,'anization  Ix*  followed,  it  is  not  necessary,  nor  i)erhap8 
<lesirable,  that  the  objects  of  the  Federation  of  I^bor  be 
too  closely  followe<l. 

.\nother  |H)int  to  In?  considered  is  that  the  fe<leration 
shall  have  for  its  object  the  Iwncfit  of  the  whole  country 
and  not  1)C  for  the  purjKise  of  establishing  monojKilies. 
This  does  not  ruean  that  the  organization  must  Ik>  altrui.<»- 
tic  or  philanthropic:  it  nuist  be  decidedly  self-interested  or 
it  will  fail  to  accomplish  its  purjM)se;  but  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  this  puriK>se,  ecxinomic  mcthtKis.  rather  than  un- 
economic, should  l>e  adoi)ted  so  that  the  whole  country 
may  be  l)enefitiMl. 

A  .stale  plan  of  federation.  —  At  a  meeting  of  the  New 
■^'ork  State  Agricultural  S4x-iety,  Dean  Hailey  suggested 
ttiat  the  State  legislature  should  define  the  iH)li(y  of  the 
State  in  referenw  to  agricultural  e<lu(!ation  and  rural  af- 
fairs, in  order  that  the  whole  of  the  work  might  Im?  ctjor- 


H 


800 


A(iIU(  rLTlRAL  EDICATION 


ilinute.l  aiul  a  definite  plan  |.n.jectc«l.    He  laid  (|.,wn  the 
following  principles:  — 

1.  The  State  shculd  «lefine  its  [nAUy  in  the  development 
of  country  life. 

i.  It  shoiiM  name  the  dasst^  of  in.stitijti..ns  that  it  i)r(>- 
poso.H  to  utili/x-  in  the  execution  of  this  policy. 

.'J,  It  should  define  the  funcliorKs  of  the  different  clus.ses 
of  in.stitiitioti.s. 

4.  it  .should  state  the  organic  rclation-ship  that  .should 
exist  lietwtH'n  them. 

Although  these  sugjif^stions  wer<-  made  having,'  largely 
in  mind  wlucational  institutions,  they  cuti  l>e  appliwl  with 
great  benefit  to  general  rural  organization. 


IN  (.J.  iAlAL 
This  dis<'ussion  may  Ix-  sunim«H|  uj)  hy  sjiying  that  with 
fhecxisten«'of  somany  in(lej)cndent  and  unrelate<l  orpini- 
/ations  there  is  thegn>atest  danger  of  wiistof  money,  time, 
and  «-fTort;  hut  owing  to  the  many  »lifTerenl  phases  of  the 
j)rol)lem.  it  is  imj)o.ssil)le  to  accomplish  the  work  without 
many  organizations.  In  order  to  achieve  the  lK\st  results, 
an  agniMuent  and  division  of  lal>or  among  the  various 
organizations  is  n(ve.s,sjiry.  ^^^len  this  has  Iktu  l.rought 
about  they  c-an  \>c  federated,  first  into  state  ;nid  then  into 
national  btKlies.  thus  combining  unity  of  action  and  con- 
centration of  jjower  with  local  iudeiwndeuce,  autonomy, 
and  direction. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   WOMAN  O.V  THK   FARM 

Thk  work  of  the  woman  on  thr  farm  is  much  m.)rc  im- 
port,.at  than  our  systoms  of  wlucation  have  generally  ad- 
rnitte«l.    The  part  |)hiye<l  hy  the  farmer*,  wifr  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Jigriculture  is  nmch  ^""iter  than  the  part 
played  hy  the  mechanic's  wife  in  the  indiistrj-  in  which  her 
liiishand  is  en>;a>;e,l.    In  other  industries  the  workinjjman 
does  his  work  in  the  factor%  or  the  shop.  He  (hn-s  not  take 
it  to  his  home,  and  his  wife  takes  no  part  in  it.   The  farmer, 
on  the  contrary,  carries  on  his  work  at  his  home,  which  is 
the  headcjiiarters  of  his  l.usiness.   His  wife  not  only  ct)n- 
ducts  the  household,  hut  is  generally  exi)ected  t(.  take  some 
part,  also,  in  the  husiness.   On  th-  way  she  conducts  the 
househohl  and  the  influence  .she  exerts  de|)end  not  only 
the  comfort  of  the  home  and  the  health  and  morals  of  its 
inmates,  hut  in  a  large  measure  the  sucwss  of  the  agricul- 
tural oi)erations  al.so.   For  thest;  and  nuiny  (.ther  reasons, 
the  education  of  the  farmer's  wife  and  daughter  should  re- 
ceive as  serious  attention  as  that  of  his  son;  for  "if  you 
educate  a  hoy  you  educate  a  man.  hut  if  you  educate  a  girl 
you  educate  a  whole  family." 

Perhaps  the  sorest  sjKjf  in  the  rural  pr()»)lem  is  the  lot  of 
the  negl»MU-d  fami  wife  and  mother.  Eve?i  where  agricul- 
tural  prt>sjHTity  is  in<heat<>«l  hy  great  harns  fill,^|  with  plenty, 
often  a  dilapidate.!  farmhous*-  nearly  devoid. .f  Iwauty.  cora- 
forl.  or  (..nveiiiin.-e.  niea.siires  the  utt-r  disregard"  of  the 
housi-wifi's  l..t.  Men.  y  is  fn-ely  siw-nt  wh.n  n.w  rnaehinery 
18  n.>e<U-.l  on  the  farm.  <.r  an..fluT  fift y-a<  re  pi.t-,.  is  a.ldeil 
after  a  prosperous  s.a.s..n,  hut  s«l<lom  a  thought  of  the  nwis 
of  the  kitchen.  Wliile  the  men  of  the  farm  ride  the  sulky 
I)lough  .,r  the  riding  ham.w  of  the  tweuti.-th  eenturv,  the 
women  liave  neither  a  washing-machine  nor  an  indoor  pump, 


90i  AGRICILTIRAL  EDI  CATION 

li»  say  iiolhitiK  of  ninniiiR  wali-r.  sanitary  pIiiriihinR,  or  a 
I>iilli-liil).  Siinctiriu's  the  ilrinlKcrv  of  tin-  farm  is  ciKlurofl 
liy  III"'  miitli.T  iiiHomplaitiiiiKly,  or  fvcii  coiitciitcflly ;  lnit 
the  <laiif;iil«T  ri-(uii>  from  it  witli  a  growing  (iis<'onlint.' 

If  ii  person  is  to  he  c<lucute<l  toward  vocational  efficiency, 
the  start  must  lie  made  when  youn^,  that  is.  when  lie  or  slic 
is  in  the  elementary  s<h<M)l.  The  ^'reat  prohlenu  how  to 
keep  the  l)oy  on  the  farm,  is  trouhlin^  many,  hut  it  would 
IxH'ome  much  less  a  jirohlem  if  we  could  devise  ways  and 
means  of  keeping  the  girl  on  the  farm.  The  fjirls  are  even 
more  tlissatisfied  with  farm  life  than  the  hoys,  and  are 
leaving  in  greater  numlMTS.  The  lessened  proportion  of 
women  in  the  country  homes  of  Canada  was  one  of  the 
startling  surprises  of  the  last  census. 


THE    KIND   OF    KULCATIO.N    IlKtillHED    DY    THE    RUn.\L 

GIUL 

The  Tenth  International  Congress  of  Agriculture,  meet- 
ing at  (Jhenf  in. June.  l!>l;J,took  into  consideration  the  rural 
exodus,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  one  of  the  hcst 
means  of  ciiecking  migration  would  l>e  to  offer  to  young 
women  an  education  fitting  them  to  l)eeome  comi>etent 
housewives,  capuhle  of  intelligently  and  affectionately  a.s- 
.sisting  their  hushands.  A  resolution  was  pjv.ssed  to  the  ef- 
fect that  "the  farm  woman  must  l)e  conscious  of  the  mis- 
sion entrusted  to  her  in  the  education  of  robust  children 
healthy  in  mind  and  body,  provided  with  a  sound  educa- 
tion, animated  with  .sentiments  giving  a  serious  idea  of  life; 
children,  finally,  who  understand  the  l)eauty  of  ct)untry 
life  and  consider  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  the  noblest 
jjrofession  of  a  free  man." 

The  rigiit  education  of  the  woman  is  all-imi)ortant  from 

anotlicr  point  of  view.   l{»'ference  has  already  been  made  to 

tlie  extent  to  which  women  are  becoming  the  educators  of 

youth.    If  tlicir  education  be  not  of  the  right  kind,  and  if  a 

'  l''i.skc,  (i.  Walter,    '^he  ClidUugi- uj  the  L'uuniry. 


THE   WOMAN  ON  THE   FARM 


eos 


lar^'o  nuinlKT  of  tlit'in  cannot  ho  trained  to  U-  niral-mind.'.l. 
tlicii  the  education  tjiven  in  tiie  rural  sc-ho(»l.s  will  continue 
to  direct  the  thoughts  of  the  pupils  toward  the  city.  If  any 
^•irl  leaves  tlu>  common  school  or  the  rural  high  sch<K)l 
without  rural  liias.  she  will  never  accjuire  it  later.  From  no 
matter  what  angle  tlie  (juestion  is  viewed,  it  all  comes 
hack  to  the  rural  .sch<M)l.  It  is  therefore  in  order  to  incjuire 
h.iw  the  necessary  training  can  he  given  in  that  in.stitution. 

THK  wouK  yon  thk  faum  riri,  in  the  klkal 

KLE.MENT.VHY    S<  II»X)L 

The  elementary  tiousehold  occupations  should  Ik'  used, 
as  is  nature-study,  to  train  the  faculty  of  ohservation.    In 
many  schools,  owing  to  the  altsence  of  equipment,  it  is  not 
I)ossihle  to  give  formal  instruction  in  c-ookcry.  even  if  the 
girls  were  old  enough  to  take  it;  hut  they  can  1)C  taught 
ahout  their  homes  and  their  home  activities.    Lessons  can 
he  given  on  neatness,  cleanliness,  and  tidiness.   Elementary 
conce})tions  of  the  nee     'or  ventilation  and  pure  air  and 
plenty  of  sunlight  maj   ..e  given  and  he  illustrated  with 
simi)le  experiments  that  every  chil.'    vill  }«>  ahle  to  under- 
stand. The  girls  can  l)e  (juestioned  ahout  what  to  do  to  heljj 
mother,  and  schooU'redit  can  he  given  for  many  forms  of 
light  work  around  the  home  and  in  the  garden  and  poultry- 
house.  They  may  al.so  he  taught  in  the  scho<)lr(K)m  how  to 
sew  and  knit,  how  to  make  doll's  clothes,  which  are  their 
own   in   miniature,  and  small   work-l»ags,  tea-towels,   or 
<lustcloths,  simple  patching  and  darning,  curtiiins  for  the 
.schoolroom  windows,  and  the  like.    Instruction  may  i)ro- 
ceed  along  these  lines,  with  practically  no  e(juii)ment  he- 
yond  that  which  every  girl  can  hring  from  her  own  home. 
The  enthusiastic  rural  teacher  will  not  stop  here,  nor  will 
she  allow  the  lack  of  t'(iuipmeiit  to  prove  an  insuperahle 
harrier.    In  some  schools  the  older  girls  conduct  cooking 
cxjKTiments  on  the  top  of  the  stove.    .\ti  cx])eiiditun'  of 
ii\e  dollars  will  cover  the  cost  of  the  utensils  needed.    A 


.  k 


n 


204 


AGRICl'LTIRAL  EDIXATION 


lar^c  (Irj'-poods  l>ox  tnay  l.e  fitted  with  a  shelf  l)y  the  (.hler 
hoys,  and  this  may  }>e  made  to  serve  hoth  as  a  tahle  and  as 
a  (iiphoard.  A  coiil-oil  or  alcohol  .-love  may  he  jjlarod  on 
tli<-  lop,  an<l  with  a  small  j)orlahIeoven  it  will  he  siifiicient 
for  the  rookiiif:  of  many  foods.  A  <lrop-down  slielf  hinged  to 
the  wall  will  provide  additional  tahle-rooni,  or  hoards  ma" 
he  placed  on  the  desk-tops  and  stored  away  when  not  in 
use.  Of  course,  all  these  devices  are  makeshifts.  l>ut  with 
them  valual)le  Ics.sons  may  he  tau^'hl;  and  in  Ihoii.sands  of 
ca.ses  it  is  either  such  equipment  or  nothing.  The  ideal  to 
he  aimed  at  is  a  .sj»eciai  rcM)m  for  this  work;  liut  how  many 
rural  scIkmjIs  luive,  or  ever  will  have,  such  conveniences.^' 
^Vilh  the  simple  e(|!ii])ment  altove  outlined,  hot  cocoa  may 
Ije  made  for  the  children  who  hring  tlieir  lunches  to  school, 
or  hV'ht  refreshments  may  \>v  .served  to  i)arents  when  they 
visit  the  school. 


iiorsKiioLD  s(iK\(  i;  i\  Tin:  home 
Another  metluxl  that  has  hceii  adopted  with  much  suc- 
cess is  the  use  of  the  home  for  jjractical  work.   This  j)Iau 
has  the  additional  advanlage  tif  ))ringing  the  .scIkk)!  and 
tlie  home  into  much  clo.ser  contact,  Wlien  a  trained  rural- 
school  suj)ervi.sor  is  emjjloyed  hy  the  state  or  the  county, 
she  will  naturally  undertake  the  orj^'anizalion  of  this  work 
and  the  teacher  will  carry  it  on  imder  her  direction;  hut  it 
can  he  handled  <piite  satisfactorily  hy  the  regular  teacher. 
The  j)lan  is  as  follows:  every  Friday  afternoon,  or  at  .some 
other  convenient  period,  the  teacher  assigns  the  work  to  })e 
done  at  home.    In  the  cas(«  of  cooking,  clear  and  concise 
instructions  should  l)e  given  concerning  materials,  quan- 
tities, method,  and  measurements.    The  directions  on  the 
hiacklioard  should  he  i)laced  in  the  nole-l>ooks.   A  lesson  is 
taken  in  the  .s<-hoolroom  and  full  explanations  given.    In 
some  cases  these  directions  have  hecn  })rinted  on  ])roi)erly 
I»unclied  cards,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  year  each  girl  has  a 
useful  collection  of  recipes  and  plans  ever>-  one  of  which 


THE  WOM-VN  0\  THE  FARM  f05 

she  has  workocl  out  aru!  uncJorstarids.  Ik'foro  conimonciiig 
work  of  this  character,  the  U-achcr  should  visit  the  homes, 
explain  the  phm  to  tlie  parents,  and  seek  their  earnest  co- 
operation. The  parents  should  Ik.-  asked  to  fill  up  a  pre- 
viously i)repared  form  and  certify  to  the  work  done  at 
lionie  each  week. 

The  success  of  this  home-work  depends,  first,  on  the  will- 
ingness of  the  pupil  to  accei)t  resiMjnsii)ility,  and,  second, 
on  the  honest  and  hearty  cooperation  of  the  parent.  No' 
credit  should  he  jjiven  for  work  that  is  not  don.-  re^nilarlv. 
Kadi  kind  of  work  should  Ik-  rei)eated  a  sufficient  nunil>er 
of  times  to  give  skill  an<l  facility  in  its  performanc..  The 
girls  may  also  take  an  active  part  in  the  scIkk)!  gardening, 
and  if  a  vegetaMe  i)lot  forms  i)art  of  the  garden  the  vege-' 
tables  grown  should  Imj  used  for  cooking  lessons. 

In  the  consolidated  scliool,  the  plans  al)ove  outlined  will 
not  be  necessary,  although  it  is  always  advisable  to  keej)  the 
home  connection  as  close  as  i)ossil)le.  Every  cons<,Iidated 
school  worthy  of  its  name  will  have  its  proi)erly  e(iuii)iK?d 
household  science  room,  and  there  the  work  will  l>e  taken 
under  proper  instruction  and  in  a  much  more  satisfactory 
manner.  Home  nursing  and  laundr>-  work  may  also  lie 
taken.  Such  -  school  should  have  on  it.s  staiT  a  fully  trained 
and  wc!!-qualified  household  science  teacher,  who  will  Ik; 
able  to  help  and  advise  the  older  girls  in  many  matters  not 
open  to  a  younger  and  less  experienced  teacher. 

nOME   nELI>S   FOn   the   GIIIL-S   not   ATTEXDING   HCnfK)L 

For  girls  not  in  attendance  at  high  schools,  some  of  the 
various  clubs  afford  a  most  useful  form  of  training.  These, 
however,  in  many  cases  leave  the  girls  tcM)  much  to  their 
own  devices  and  do  not  give  the  amount  of  instruction  that 
is  desirable.  I'n.bably  one  <.f  the  best  methods  of  doing 
this  work  is  an  organization  similar  to  that  of  the  NV 
braska  State  Education  Department.  This  is  known  as  the 
'Home  Experiment  Dei)artment,"  and  has  enrolled  in  it 


;  t;i 


206 


A(i U I (  L  L'l' I  HAL  E D I  CATION 


over  ;{()0()  ^'irls.  The  phin  f)r()vi(los  for  cjrfinite  work,  in 
wliich  iiistnicliori  is  jjivcri  and  on  wliicli  reports  are  made 
nioritlily.  Kacli  inoiitli  from  Ai)ril  to  NovemlKT  every 
nieml)er  reeeives  re(ii)cs  and  definite  instruetions.  The 
work  includes  some  of  the  liest  methods  in  ccokinf:  and 
serving,' nutritious  foods,  and  tlier(M)kinK.eatmin^',  and  pre- 
serviuf,'  of  fruits  in  season.  Instruction  is  j,'iven  in  liutter- 
making,  and  directions  are  sent  out  concerning,'  the  care  of 
milk  and  cream,  «!iurning  cream,  and  finishing  and  jjacking 
butter.  Blanks  an- sent  for  reporting  the  dilfercnt  branches 
included  in  the  work.  The  work  in  sewing  is  practical, 
and  the  articles  made  such  as  are  ne«'essary  an<l  useful. 
The  <lepartment  furnishes  patterns  ami  instructions  for 
hemming  towels,  making  a  sewing  ai)ron,  a  garden  hat, 
household  linen,  and  the  like.  Flower-culture  al.so  rec-eives 
attetition. 

I'his  work  is  now  conducted  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Agricultural  College.  The  present  State  Suix-rin- 
tendent  of  Education  for  Nebra.ska,  says:  — 

Tli.-s«-  <liil)s  will,  witlmi  a  d.-cade.  have  s<>  chariged  the 
id.al  .f  family  life  in  Ncl.raska  lliaf  the  Ix.ys  ami  girls  will 
hail  wWh  .h'light  llic  tiriif  wluii  the  prci)aralurv  -tayc  of 
.s<liiN)l  life  is  over,  and  a  uico  farm  and  farm  licmc  is  tji,.  rc- 
\vard  fur  the  jirt  paratioii  made  nnd<r  the  clul.  movement  in 
\el-raska.  We  will  lli.n  have  belter  sclKxils,  more  happy 
farm  homes,  and  the  id.-als  of  farm  life  uill  l.e  of  >neb  hi^jh 
standard  that  N'ehraska  will  ri-v  np  and  <'all  IVnfessor  K.  C. 
Hisliop  [the  man  who  inunguralitl  the  clubs]  "u  man  who  was 
\M)rlh  while." 


One  of  the  functions  of  the  agricultural  high  school  may 
well  be  the  initiation  of  work  of  thi.>  character  for  girls  in 
the  neighborhood  who  are  not  able  to  take  regular  liigh- 
.school  courses.  In  a<ldition.  a  <-ourse  of  lessons  on  some 
d<'finite  topic  of  household  management  can  be  given  on 
one  half-day  a  week,  for  ten  or  more  weeks.  These  «-our.ses 
should  be  inlen>-ive  and  detiniteiy  vocatiuual  in  character. 


THE  WOJLVN  ON   THE  FAllM 


SOT 


SPECIAL    HIGH-SCHOOL    WORK    FOR    FARM    (ilRLS 

Every  hijjh  sfhool  that  has  an  agricultural  course  and 
every  agricultural  liigh  sduxil  should  provide  a  course  for 
iris  as  extensive  in  character  as  that  offered  for  liovs. 
Fur  more  than  eighty  percent  of  the  girls,  home-makiiig 
will  l)e  the  principal  vwation.  There  is  no  other  voi-ation 
in  which  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  female  poi)ulation 
will  Ik'  engaged. 

In  the  schools  thus  far  established,  there  is  one  subject 
of  vital  imjMjrtance  to  the  future  of  the  nation  that  has 
liitl  to  l>et'n  neglect.-d.  namely,  the  care  and  nurture  of 
(iii)  en.  This,  the  most  imjx-rtant  oliligation  in  the  world, 
is  left  to  unskilled  and  ignorant  lahor.  One  .-„xth  of  the 
children  horn  die  within  one  year  of  their  hirth.  and  one 
third  of  them  within  fi'.e  years.  A  large  {HTcentage  of  this 
death-rate  is  due  to  the  ignorance  of  the  mother. 

T<n>  often  it  is  foiin.l  that  the  life  of  the  first-horn  is  saeri- 
fieetl  durinR  the  «arly  n'onths  of  its  lif«'  by  reason  of  the  lack 
of  kii(>wl.<lg<-  on  til.'  pari  of  the  parents  in  the  care  neressary 
in  the  feeding,'  of  this  vuiualfle  jwrtion  of  oiir  jHtpuiation,  anil 
a  lack  ftf  kn(>wU-<lfjf  as  to  the  care  in  toilet  ami  personal  hy- 
giene of  these  dear  lit  lie  infants.  The  same  att»-ntion  given 
by  the  pan-nts  to  bringing  up  the  bal)y  as  is  given  by  them 
to  the  rearing  of  yonng  «hiek»iis  or  die  lhorough-bre«l  calf, 
particularly  as  reganis  feeding,  wouiil  be  followed  by  e<iiially' 
g<H)(l  resnils. 

The  p<>oplp  have  yet  to  realize  the  imTwirtane*'  of  this 
branch  of  education,  and  that  no  false  m.Mlesty  must  lie  per- 
miltetl  Ui  exi.st  in  reganl  to  \t.  Tlie  stu.jy  of  the  infant  life 
is  of  more  im()orlance  than  the  animal  ami  vegetable  life, 
or  the  nuiking  of  butter,  the  baking  of  breail.  ami  the  all- 
devotzretl  American  pie.  Tiie  young  women  of  th,  country 
must  be  tauglit  how  to  mirse.  fee<l,  an<l  clothe  the  baby,  and 
be  shown  how  much  more  itnjMirtant  U,  liie  stale  is  this  ••deli- 
cate subject"  than  the  ftv.jing,  fondling,  and  toilet  of  the  jH't 
dog  or  cat.  cr  the  fascination  a.-s(K-iate<l  with  l)rif)ge  whist  or 
other  .social  lads.* 

'  Dr.  UudgclU.  Uejxjrt  of  Ontario  IJoar.l  of  IK-aHh.     Toronto. 


208 


AGRICULTrR.VL  EDUCATION 


(■(hAjKck  coritsKs  for  women 
The  h]^}wT  educatiun  of  women  along  the  h'nes  of  lioine 
economics  has  not  made  so  much  process  as  se<(jndary 
education,  or  even  elementary  education.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  until  comparatively  recently  it  was  not  generally 
recognized  that  women  needed  higher  education;  and  even 
when  recognized,  it  was  not  conceded  that  higher  educa- 
tion was  to  he  found  in  or  culture  derived  from  subjects 
that  pertain  to  the  management  of  a  household.  \  woman 
who  holds  a  professorshij>  in  a  classical  institution  uses 
these  startling  words  in  an  article  written  recently  for  the 
Atlantic  Monthly:  — 

Tliere  is  al)S<)!iitily  notfiiiig  in  domestic  duties  themselves, 
or  in  any  form  of  manual  lalM)r,  wliieli  develops  the  mind  or 
broadens  or  elevates  the  chara<ter.  The  idea  that  every 
woman  ne<  ds  practical  instnietioii  in  housektx'i)ing  as  a  part 
of  her  eiliication  is  as  absurd  as  woul<l  Ik-  the  claim  tluit  every 
man  ne^iis  to  be  Umuhl  in  the  s<-hool  to  plant  corn  or  milk  a 
cow.  If  tliere  aeenies  to  women  as  much  mental  and  j)hysieal 
and  si)iritual  development  from  learning  to  do  well  all  things 
connwte<l  with  <lomestie  life  as  fndn  the  study  of  iHwks,  why 
I  ask  (Kh's  not  the  fanatic  on  industrial  e«iucation  entrust  the 
entire  rearing  of  his  cliildren  to  his  Irish  nurse-girl.  Wliy 
does  he  not  marry  lus  (XKjk.' 

What  instruction  there  is  of  college  grade  in  home  eco- 
nomics has  been  largely  directed  toward  the  training  of 
teachers;  and  while  the  students  trained  in  these  colleges 
may  eventually  find  their  way  into  homes  of  their  own,  yet 
the  primary  i»uri>ose  of  their  course  is  their  equipment  as 
teachers  and  not  as  home-makers.  In  many  schools  the 
emphasis  is  i)laced  on  the  retjuirements  of  the  town  and 
city  and  not  on  those  of  tlie  country.  Of  course  the  basic 
j)riiiciples  are  the  same  in  both  cases,  but  the  application 
of  these  principles  often  differs  in  the  two  classes  of  homes. 

While  it  is  desirable  that  the  wife  of  the  man  who  lives 
iti  the  city  should  know  something  of  her  husband's  busi- 


'#^- 


^'?^'*/>-'t>*''''J-"'': 


ttM 


IHp 


TUE  \VO\LVN  ON  THE  FAIIM 


200 


rioss,  the  absence  of  such  knowledfje  docs  not  seriously  hand- 
icap him  in  the  i)erfonnanee  of  his  duties.  On  the  other 
haiiil,  the  wife  of  the  farmer  cannot  manage  her  end  of  the 
Iiusiness  successfully  without  a  somewhat  intinjate  knowl- 
(■(lj,'eof  farming  oiK-rat ions,  and  inadditi«m  to  the  |)erform- 
ariceof  her  own  s|x>cial  duties  she  is  gent  rally  retjuireti  to 
take  some  part  in  the  actual  management  of  the  farm. 

One  of  the  best  courses,  although  not,  i)erha{)s,  of  strictly 
college  grade,  is  that  given  at  the  Stout  Institute,  Menom- 
inee. Wisconsin.  The  following  particulars  are  adapted 
from  the  prosiKftus  of  the  s<'hool  and  other  sources.  In 
1907,  after  four  years'  work  in  the  training  of  teachers,  it 
was  found  that  many  young  women  did  not  wish  to  take 
the  professional  training  that  would  fit  them  for  the  voca- 
tion of  teaching,  but  tliat  they  did  wish  to  be  given  an  oj)- 
l)ortunity  to  acquire  a  practical  training  for  the  vocation  of 
h(  )iue-making,  which  a  school  of  the  highest  grade  for  home- 
makers  could  offer.  Out  of  this  ex])erience  grew  the  course 
referred  to.  No  attempt  was  made  to  secure  a  large  attend- 
ance, owing  to  the  fact  that  the  work  was  new  and  the  ac- 
commodations limited.  In  the  organization  of  the  course  of 
study,  much  attention  was  paid  to  woman's  chief  economic 
function  —  the  spending  of  money.  Women's  relation  to 
the  community  as  the  chief  purchaser  of  the  world's  goods  is 
of  the  utmost  importance,  not  only  to  her  immediate  fam- 
ily but  to  the  world  at  large,  since  she  establishes  the  .stand- 
ards of  life  and  determines  in  no  small  degree  the  quality  of 
commercial  production  in  the  industrial  world. 

The  study  made  of  this  subject  is  a  comprehensive  one, 
and  leads  to  the  consideration  of  many  questions  of  social 
and  economic  importance  not  usually  included  in  the  typi- 
cal household  science  program.  The  course  pays  full  atten- 
tion to  all  the  economic,  scientific,  artistic,  and  ethical 
factors  which  are  involved  in  making  a  home,  the  term 
Innng  used  in  the  widest  sense  and  including  modem  social 
Ijroblems  and  community  interests.  The  activities  around 


«10 


AGRICILTIRAL  EDLCATION 


whifh  the  (-(Hirsv  centers  are  those  eonneefed  with  the  pro- 
vision  of  a  suital)Ie  shelter  for  the  family,  the  nutrition  of  the 
family,  and  suilaMe  clothinj,'  for  the  comfort  of  the  family; 
those  that  have  to  do  with  the  <are  of  dependent  nieml)ers 
of  the  family  —  children,  invalids,  and  a^'cd  i)ersons;  and 
those  that  have  to  do  with  the  s<Hial,  industrial,  and  eth- 
ical relations  of  the  memlK>rs  of  the  family  to  each  other 
and  to  other  meml)ors  of  society.  Such  a  course  is  broadly 
cultural  JUS  well  as  intensely  practical,  and  proves  the  argu- 
ment that  household  .science  has  no  cultural  value  to  l>e 
fallacious. 

Speaking  of  a  college  course  in  household  science,  Dr. 
Ballict  has  .said :  — 

Tlie  work  mappcii  out  has  as  high  a  cultural  value  aa  the 
Ih-sI  ctjurses  now  given  in  college,  if  we  must  ke«'p  on  t-on- 
trastiiig  the  ciiltunil  and  the  practical  as  if  they  were  mu- 
tually hostile  to  eacii  other.  S>nic  <ia\.  some  thousands  of 
yt-ars  to  come,  when  s|K'<ta(le<l  profexMirs  shall  stuily  Anieri- 
«-an  anli(|uities.  itil  tlie.se  commou  practical  prtK-os-st-s.  the 
ctM>king  of  meat,  the  manufacture  of  clotliing,  eto..  will  t)e 
cultural  .suhjc<Ls  on  whicii  learne<i  courses  of  kxtures  will  he 
given,  and  they  will  Ik'  accept*-*!  as  pro|MT  suhjects  for  theses 
for  the  (legn-e  of  dcK-tor  of  philosophy.  Somi-how,  according 
to  college  students.  knowie<ige  must  have  a  certain  age  l>efore 
it  h«-omes  culture.  Wlien  it  is  so  far  heliind  tlie  times  that  it 
ceases  to  Ije  practical,  then  it  iH-comes  cultural. 

women's  INSTlTLTt-S 

When  the  .schools  have  done  their  l)est.  there  will  still  be 
a  large  number  of  women  who  will  have  to  be  reached  by 
other  means.  When  farmers'  institutes  were  first  estab- 
lished, no  jirovision  was  made  for  the  .special  etlucation  of 
women.  They  often  attendetl  the  meetings  and  gathered 
what  they  could  from  the  instructic  .  given  to  the  men. 
Later,  .spc«  ial  sessions  were  organized  for  the  consideration 
of  problems  in  which  women  were  particularly  conc**rned; 
and  now  a  njovement  for  separate  women's  institutes  has 
become  active. 


THE   WOMAN  ON  THE  FARM 


'.Ml 


MviTy  farmtr>'  in-litiit.-  nIiouM  Iiavo  soim-  sessions  open 
to  woiiifii,  unci  cvrry  uoiiifn'^  institute  sliuul.i  liavr  m.hu- 
M•^^i^Ils  open  to  iiifii.  A  sharp  line  of  .li\  i>ioii  can  nrvcr  Ik> 
ilrawn  hftwofn  tlu-  work  of  llic  man  ami  llii-  woman  on  tli.> 
l.irm.  liut  till'  timr  lia>  now  arrivt-d  when  wonim  >lioiiI,| 
n-riMVi'  sfparato  and  spt-cial  considi-ration  in  tin,-  plans  ar- 
ran^jfd  for  farmers'  institutes.  Indonhtedly  it  is  of  decided 
advantaj,'e  to  have  at  least  part  of  tlie  meeting  for  mixed 
M'ssions.  when  women  may  listen  to  tlic  discussion  of  ^vw- 
cral  farm  problems;  it  is  of  ^'reat  value  to  the  men,  and 
|.roi)aI)ly  in  the  end  is  helpful  to  the  women,  to  have  dis- 
cussions of  home  economies,  sanitation,  and  farm-home 
conveniences  open  to  the  men.  There  are,  however,  many 
l.hascs  of  the  life  of  farm  women  that  are  most  etfectively 
<liscussed  in  separate  meetings;  and  generally  women  will 
enter  into  discussion  more  freely  when  the  meetings  are 
scj)arate. 

The  man  and  the  woman  in  the  farm  home  are  not  iK'ing 
ccpially  develo])ed.  Agricultural  jiractice  has  heen  radi- 
( ally  changed  hy  .scientific  and  mechanical  discoverv.  hut 
the  farm  home  and  the  work  of  the  woman  have  not  been 
given  the  oi>i)ortunity  to  respond  to  as  imixirUmt  discover- 
ies in  the  science  of  home-making.  Many  facts  might  he 
cited  to  prove  this.  The  location  of  the  home  is  not  .selected 
with  so  great  care  as  to  soil,  drainage,  and  exposure  as  the 
l)arns  are.  There  is  generally  a  cement  fliK)r  in  the  dairy, 
water  in  the  haru.s,  and  imjjroved  machinery  in  the  fields, 
before  any  improvement  takes  place  in  the  homes.  More 
intelligent  efforts  are  being  made  to  feed  the  cows,  sheej), 
and  pigs  properly  than  are  being  directed  to  the  food- 
values  of  the  meals  .served  to  the  children  of  the  family. 
These  facts  are  now  being  recognized  in  the  women's  insti- 
tutes that  are  gradually  being  established  throughout  the 
country. 

U'nnxfrs  iriMitiifcs  in  Ontaria. — The  Province  of  On- 
l.trio  ha-;  developeil  women's  instituti's  to  :;  ijnich  irrr—ts'^ 


!2I« 


.\(;HI([  LTI  UAL  KDICATION 


i'\tfiit  than  any  (illicr  sl;iti>  or  province.  Tlir  n'|M)rf  «>f  llu; 
Work  for  1!M  I  pivcs  tlic  following:  |tarti<iilars;  [n»'nilMT.>.lii|), 
'^:{,()S!»;  niiinlMT  of  iiiirtiti;,'^  ImI.I.  h:,(H.  total  atti'iKlancc, 
's;n,.»..jU'»,  tiuinl.;-r  of  pajHTs  read  or  a<l«lrrss«'.s  (idivcrt'd, 
'0,7!K{;  (•,i>li  ill  hand  acconhn;;  to  last  report,  •'<IS,:;'21;  merii- 
Imt.s'  fees.  sti.i7!»;  ;;raiits  from  the  ^'overninent.  county 
councils,  etc.,  .s70i)»;  mis<cllaneons  reci-ipts.  ."!<:{:{, -29!);  «'x- 
jxiiscs  for  nieetincs.  !?(..':{:{(;;  officers'  sjil.iries  aii<l  (>x{M'nses, 
JS'Ull.;  jMista^'e  and  stationery.  ><1 1<>();  printing' and  aclvcr- 
tisiii^'.  !i<\il!>l;  Iciliirers'  expenses  and  fei  s.  ><1H,">7;  IxMtks 
and  periodicals,  $1;;T;5.  The  total  re<eipfs  were  8C.J,018, 
and  the  total  cxi)en<litnre  ;i<J';J.l.S.>,  I  ..  :.•!>,'  a  balance  in 
hand  of  .s..'v>,H(i;J. 

Ti'ti  dollars  ,i  ye.ir  is  allowed  liy  the  ^^overnnient  to  each 
women's  institute,  on  the  condition  that  at  least  an  e<)uu| 
sum  shall  l)e  ^'raiiti-d  liy  the  county  council  or  the  munici- 
I)alify  in  wliicfi  the  institute  is  or;,'anizcd.  or  liy  the  hn-al 
farmers'  iiislitule.  There  arc  Hi;\  institutes  in  active  ojier- 
ation  throughout  the  province.  The  work  is  rapi<lly  In-ing 
extende<l  to  other  provinces  of  th«'  Dominion,  larj^'oly  as  a 
nvsult  of  the  work  in  Ontario.  Tlio  work  of  each  year  is 
closed  with  an  annual  convention  held  in  the  city  of  To- 
r«)nto,  to  which  each  institute  sends  two  or  more  delegates. 

The  f unci  ion. s  of  u-omenK  in,sti(utcs.  —  Women's  institutes 
are  concerned,  first,  with  woman's  place  in  the  home,  and 
then  with  her  place  in  the  coiiimnnity.  The  institutes 
have  HH-ognized  that  the  .salvation  of  our  country  life  lies 
in  the  home,  and  so  have  concentrated  their  work  there. 
They  realiz<'  that  many  a  young  man  has  forsaken  the  i)ro- 
fession  of  his  father  and  gone  into  town  to  iMH-ome  a  trades- 
man or  day  lal)orer,  iMx-au.se  he  dcK-s  not  wish  to  subject 
his  wife  to  the  hardships  and  drudgery  he  has  seen  his 
mother  and  sisters  endure. 

In  th«'  <lioice  of  sf)eakers.  as  much  care  should  h.^  exer- 
cised as  has  been  advi.s«"d  in  the  ca.se  of  institutes  for  men. 
The  sjx'akers  should  have  definite  and  exact  information 


TUK   WOMAN  OX  TIIi:   FAILM  «is 

fo  (•«»nvey,  witli  «'(|uall>  .h-fiiiitc  plari-<  m  I.,  how  that  infor- 
mation may  Ix-  pnKli.all.v  applinl.  'l"l  •  lUH-es.sify  for  im- 
provfim-iil  alon^;  all  liiirs  in  aii<i  around  th<- honic.sli.tuld  Ik. 
a>Minie(J.  and  vctv  little  time  n»H-d  l)e  sjn-nt  in  .st-rmom/- 
iii^;oti  that  iic<T.s>ify.  Vrarsa^o.  wlu-n  these  institutes  were 
first  forme*!  in  Ontario,  eookirij,'  deinoii,frations  and  the 
exehanKO  of  re<i[)es  formed  the  greater  part  of  the  projjram. 
i'heM'  <Jem(mstrations  still  have  an  im|M,rtant  j)laee.  hut 
the  institute  to-(hiy  stands  for  niueh  wider  s«Tvi{-e. 

The  first  problem  to  l.e  met  m  the  ii;  rovemenf  of  home 
conditions  is  the  work  of  the  woman  herself.  Most  women 
on  the  farm  work  too  hard,  and  a  i)art  of  their  w»,rk  would 
not  Ik- niH-essjiry  if  it  were  syslmiatizetl  an.l  the  proi;er 
eonveniences  su|)plied.  Ha<lly  planned  houses  mean  m:iiiy 
steps,  and  the  lack  of  modern  t.-nveniences  adds  mu(  h  to 
the  daily  tasks.  In  the  country  overloaded  tal.les,  with  an 
overabundance  of  pi.  s.  «akes,  proerves.  and  the  like,  are 
common,  and  this  excessi\  e  (•<M)kinK  ad<ls  nmch  to  the  daily 
routine.  The  institutes  luive  a  f;reat  field  in  teaching'  the 
simjjlification  of  work  and  of  diet.  The  farm  woman  needs 
to  l>e  taught  the  difTereiice  iM-tween  essentials  and  nfin- 
essentials,  what  must  he  done,  wliat  may  be  partially  done, 
and  what  may  l)e  left  undone. 

The  institutes  have  not  confintnl  them.selves  to  home 
Fjroblems.  but  have  entered  the  wider  held  of  Mnial  service. 
They  have  been  instrumental  in  establishiiifr  libraries,  in- 
stalling pianos  in  public  halls,  furnishing  and  maintaining 
rest-rooms  where  women  may  Ix-  refreslied  and  leave  their 
small  children  while  shopping,  investigating  tlie  sanitary 
conditions  of  rural  sch(M)ls.  agitating  and  educating  for  a 
pure  milk-supply,  for  the  stamping  out  of  tuberculosi-.  for 
the  extermination  of  the  liouse  fly,  and  for  a  more  elevated 
tone  in  the  current  literature  of  the  day,  especially  in  the 
so-called  humorous  pages  of  the  newspapcf^. 

Specific  iniitructum  giren  by  icomen'.s  in.^titutrs.  —  Much 
that  has  been  said  concerning  insiitn'e-  for  nun  aj>j>!ie-3 


214 


AGIUCrLTlRAL  EDrCATION 


uitli  r<|iial  funr  In  woiiu-n's  iiistitiilcs,  jiartiiiilnrly  with 
nfcn-iKT  to  the  lack  of  clnsc  sIikIv.  With  a  view  to  rciiir- 
•Iviii),'  this  ililli(ult\ .  several  coiirso  of  slu<iy  have  hccn  or- 
^'ani/.<«l  ill  uhi<  h  ^'nattr  atfrnf  ion  can  U-  paid  to  <lctail  and 
iiiclhod.  'I'hc  iiixlitiitc  liraiK  li  of  the  Ontario  l)c|)artiiiciit 
of  A^iriciiiliirf  has  c>lal>h>hci|  courses  in  "fiMxIs  and  c<K>k- 
•  TV,"  "'.scwin^',"  and  "hoinc-niirsiii^'."  The  iiicctiii>;s  of 
the  irisliliift's  \vhi<  h  formerly  had  considered  siihjects  in  a 
desultory  way,  showed  the  ineiiil»«'r.s  clearly  that  soinethin^j 
more  dcfiniU'  was  iie<-«\s,sary.  They  a.sked  the  departnient 
to  form  special  classes  and  courses  for  the  systematic  stmly 
of  the  ahove  to|»ics.  Kach  course  as  now  orptni/ed  consists 
of  ten  or  more  lectures,  and  within  the  ntx-essary  limits 
co\ers  the  subject  (jiiite  thoroughly. 

The  work  is  so  arran^'ed  that  th«>  instructor  may  travel 
readily  from  place  to  pla<«'.  hohlin^r  a  course  at  a  diff«Tent 
jioinl  each  day  from  Monday  to  Friday,  inclusive,  eover- 
mn  the  same  route  each  week.  The  clas.ses  are  ^renerally 
held  in  the  afternoons,  hut  in  special  ea.ses  arran^iements 
are  made  for  lioldiiij;  classes  in  the  evenings.  During;  the 
past  winter,  ei;,'ht«-cn  courses  of  fifte<'n  les.soiis  each  on 
foods  and  eookin;;  were  f,'iven  at  ei^'hteen  ditFerent  centers; 
fifteen  courses  of  ten  les.sons  each  on  .stnvinj;  were  given  at 
fifteen  dilferent  places;  and  nin<'  general  courses  of  ten  le.s- 
soiis  each  at  nine  different  centers.  The  complete  courses 
wiTe  taken  hy  HitiT  persons,  and  in  addition  many  others 
took  (K'casional  le.s.sons. 

These  demonstration  courses  are  proving  most  effec- 
tive in  giving  country  women  .systematic  instruction. 
There  is  no  reason  why  similar  courses  should  not  Ik-  estab- 
lished to  cover  most  rural  districts.  Institutes  desiring  to 
tak(>  advantage  of  the  courses  offered  hy  the  tleijartment. 
send  in  ai)plieations  and  enter  into  actual  <'ontracts  to  do 
their  part  of  the  work.  A  tyi)ical  contract  for  the  course  in 
food  and  cooking  is  given  below.  The  contracts  for  the 
other  courses  are  similar  to  the  one  shown,  except  that  the 


THE  WOMAN   ON   TIIK   FAH.M 


tl5 


s«-wifi>jroiirsr  rails  for  classes  i»f  twenty,  and  each  |MTs<»n  is 
ri'«|iiire<l  to  pay  two  dollars  for  the  coiirs**  and  tweiify-tive 
<  ttils  for  a  single  levsuii  In  all  ^iil)j«'<t.s.  the  full  enrollment 
fnr  the  entire  course  must  be  guaranteed. 


'ni'ICAL  CONTiaCT 

Betw«vn  the  Institnti^*'   Branch  <.f  the  Department  of 
AKricuiturc  and  th.- Institute 

i.Vam/  '»/» 

Dem«)\htration-Le<t(he  Coi'KMi:  is 
HK)1>S  and  (  IKJKING 

Tin-  Department  of  A>jriciiifnri'  agre«"s  to: 

1.   I'mvide  all  jiorLuhic  f<iinpiii.nt.  except  the  necessary 

t«hIv--<.  chairs,  and  one  cookstove. 
'i.  Provide  a  tea<her  who  will: 

(a)  Give  ten  I>tniunstration-I>xture»  in  IXinieslic 
S<ienc<'  (FiKxIs  and  Cookinj;).  one  ea<h  week,  at 
i-ach  of  the  pla<-es  in<hided  in  the  itinerarj-. 
{h)  Furnish  such  [mtsou  as  the  Institute  nuiy  appoint 
with  written  dire<tioiis  for  any  l(Hal  marketing  or 
sjMxial  preparations  at  least  one  week  before  U»ey 
are  nee<le<l. 

Each  local  Institute  agrees  tu: 

1.  .Vdvertis*'  the  conrs«-  and  s<ili(it  members  for  the  class 
with  a  view  of  seeurin>{  a.s  lar>?e  c!a.ss<'s  as  iH>ssil>le. 

i.  Pn)vide  a  r;M)ni  or  hall  suitjiMe  for  the  hitures  and 
•lemonstrations,  e<juipp«sl  with  the  necessary  clmirs, 
tables,  cookstove,  etc.;  also  to  s.-.-  that  the  hall  is  pro|»- 
crly  clcane«|,  lighte<l,  heat.sl,  ami  ventilattsl. 

S.  Provide  all  materials  htr  demonstration  work. 

4.  Provide  an  assistant  who  will  be<'oMie  res|)onsible  for  the 
ojX'ninf?  of  the  rootu.  do  the  necessary  hxal  marketing, 
and  clear  up  and  clean  the  demonstration  tables,  dishes, 
etc.  (It  is  usually  iM)ssible  to  find  some  girl  willing  to 
pay  for  her  atfen<lance  on  the  cours*'  in  this  way.) 

5.  Guarante*'  the  sale  of  twenty -five  {io}  course  tickets  at 
$li5  |K'r  ticket. 

6.  Appoint  some  jH-rson  who  will  be  reeuired  to  keep  an 
exact  record  of  Llie  attendance  of  those  holding  course 


m. 


i\r,  AGRICrLTrRAL  EDICATIOX 

ticki'Ls  as  well  as  orcasionals.  ut  cacli  .s«'ssif)n  and  rejiort 
the  .sjuiir  to  t'lc  t'-aclnT  at  the  (lost-  of  Iht-  idiirst'. 

7.  I'ay  tli«'  84.5.00  ( tinr^.fl  for  the  t-oursc  within  ;<  wc«k.s  of 
tin-  (•oiiiiiicrictiiurit  of  the  tours*',  aixl  oiiu  half  of  the 
n><»ij)t.s  aho\  (■  $J,>.(M).  whitluT  payments  \>c  on  ac<ount 
of  course  t  ickcts  >r  single  aihni.s.sion.s,  either  iliiritiK  or  at 
the  <ori(  lusion  of  the  eoiirse.  I'aynKtits  are  to  he  made 
to  till'  iustnietor  and  n-eeipLs  setiired  at  time  of  pay- 
ment. 

8.  The  Institute  concerneti  is  at  hherty  to  sell  fonrse  tick- 
ets in  miflitioti  to  the  tvventy-five  re(inire<l  and  also  to 
admit  niemh«Ts  at  13  cenU  [kt  hs.son. 

Signe<l  by 

representing  the  Department  of  .\crieiiilure. 

repre.s«-nting Institute. 

teacher. 

l^alLtl  at this (lay  of 1913, 

In  cookery,  s{KHiiil  omphasis  is  placed  on  f«)od-vaIues, 
and  on  the  conipurison  of  money-values  with  ffMxl-values. 
The  aim  tliroujjhout  is  not  to  teach  fancy  (•<M)kery,  hiit 
plain  .ser\  iceahle  dishe.s.  Hasic  recipes  which  are  caj)al>le 
of  adaptation  are  «iven.  Kffort  is  also  made  to  brinj,'  about 
a  realization  of  llie  importance  of  pn)per  cookery  and  its 
inflnenc*'  on  the  welfare  of  the  family. 

In  home-nursinj,',  the  first  le.s.son  is  one  on  the  sick  room. 
Tlien  foll«)w  lessons  on  l>ed-makinfi.  the  Itath.  .sevenl  kinds 
of  enierf,'ency  work,  external  applications,  itandaging.  dis- 
infection, olwervation  of  .symptoms  of  various  di.sea.ses,  ad- 
ministration of  f(MKl  and  medicine,  and  a  lesson  or  two 
on  l)al)\  hygiene.  These  cla.s.ses  are  sometimes  held  in  the 
homes  of  the  memlKTs. 

In  the  .sewing  classes,  elementary  le.s.sons  arc  given  on 
the  various  stitch  forms  and  their  suitability  and  adapta- 
bility tofliffcrent  kinds  of  work.  At  thecloseof  one  typical 
course,  each  sludiiit  had  a  shirt-waist,  a  skirt,  a  one-i)ie<-e 
dress,  and  pcrf»'ct  fitting  pattern.-  of  each  of  these  for  fur- 
ther US)'. 


THE  WOALVN  ON  THE   FARM 


^IV 


Many  of  the  women  drive  fmm  one  to  seven  miles  to  at- 
tend these  classes,  and  ahsenees  are  ahn.>st  luiiaiown  amoii^ 
those  who  have  entered  for  the  full  course.  Objection  has 
been  taken  in  some  quarters  to  the  fee  char^'Cfl;  hut,  in  the 
first  place,  the  fee  d(x*s  not  U'^'iii  to  cover  the  total  expense, 
leaving,'  a  large  balance  to  l)e  made  up  by  the  «lcpartment; 
and,  in  the  seconu  place,  it  has  Ixn-n  found  that  owing  to 
the  imfKisition  of  the  fee  the  classes  are  much  In-ttcr  at- 
tended than  if  they  were  free.  The  fe<h'ral  government  hiis 
recently  made  a  lil)eral  grant  to  the  I*rovincial  Department 
of  Agriculture,  ami  a  generous  approprianon  from  this  has 
been  set  apart  for  the  further  development  of  the-    courses. 

The  work  of  the  women's  in.stitutes  in  connection  with 
these  c-ourses  has  In-en  twofold:  they  have  created  the  de- 
sire, and  they  have  assimietl  the  local  rcsiKtnsibility  for  the 
organization.  Without  the  sj)irit  engendered  by  the  |)re- 
vious  work  of  the  institutes,  these  courses  would  be  im- 
possible. 

DOMESTIC-Sf'IENCE   TRAIN'S 

Much  useful  work  has  l)een  done  among  farmers  by 
the  agricultural  trains  previously  referrtn]  to.  In  several 
states,  domestic-science  trains  are  Ix'ing  run  to  accomplish 
similar  results  among  the  women  on  the  farm.  In  North 
Cart)liiia,  for  example,  the  farmers'  institutes  are  running 
cars  of  this  description.  They  are  fitted  simply  v  ith  a  gaso- 
line stove  and  a  few  utensils,  together  with  illustrat've 
charts  hung  on  the  sides  of  the  car.  The  cars  are  run 
tlmnigh  the  rural  sections,  and  qualified  teachers  give  sim- 
ple lectures  on  various  pluuses  of  household  management. 
S|)ecial  emphasis  is  laid  on  sanitation,  hygiene,  an<l  *  he  <arc 
of  children. 

There  are.  of  c-ourse,  many  regions  that  cannot  \ye 
reached  by  trains.  To  reach  communities  of  this  charac- 
ter, the  T-iskegee  Institute  has  fitted  up  what  is  krH)W7i 
as  the  "Jessijp"  agricultural  wagon,  drawn  by  two  mules. 


iJ18 


AGUICrLTlRAL  EDITATION 


Tills  wagon  is  rhiffly  ilosipnod  to  \^  of  int«Trst  to  farmers, 
hut  the  lioiis<'h()l(l  side  is  not  entirely  nei,'leffe<l.  There 
would  st^»ni  to  1m-  large  j)ossil»ililie.s  of  uM'fuInes.s  for  such 
wagons  in  isolated  rural  districts. 

A  careful  review  of  the  whole  situation  in  the  open  coun- 
try leads  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state 
and  federal  governments  t«)  devote  as  nnich  attention  to 
the  education  of  the  farm  woman  as  is  now  given  to  the 
education  of  the  farmer  and  the  economic  raising  of  crops. 
While  this  work  cannot  l)o  exix-ctwl  ever  to  yield  as  great 
financial  returns  as  hel|)  given  to  farmers,  it  will  give  an 
e(|ually  impf)rtant  return  in  fuller  and  richer  lives  iu  the 
farm  homes  of  our  country. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

THE   THAINING    OF    TEACHERS 

Fou  many  years  attention  lias  l)een  paid  to  the  training 
of  teachers,  hut  it  is  only  re<H>ntly  that  spe<-ial  thought  has 
iMH'n  given  to  prepari;  '  teaci  -ts  of  agriculture,  and  still 
inure  recently  to  preparuig  teacli"-^  who  vvuuld  Ijo  able  to 
give  agricultural  instruction  in  ru  al  sc1i>k)1s. 

In  order  that  agricultural  education  shall  1> come  wide- 
spread and  efftvtivc.  teacl^-rs  of  st>veral  grades  are  re- 
(liiired:  teachers  for  rur  1  scIi<m->1s,  for  high  sch(M)ls,  for  s|)e- 
cia!  scli(M)ls.  for  agricuiiural  colleg  s  aid  for  the  various 
forms  of  extension  service.  Some  of  these  we  shall  con- 
sider. 


THE   TIl.\INING    OF   TEACHERS   FOR   RURAL   STIUOTUS 

The  problem  of  training  teachers  f(jr  the  rural  schools 
presents  the  gre:i'est  difhculties.  and  partly  for  this  rea- 
st)n  and  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing agriculture  in  the  rural  scIkkiIs  have  not  In-en  generally 
agre<Hl  upon,  the  whole  matter  has  lieen  largely  neglected. 

The  c«insensus  of  opinion  now  seems  to  be  that  no  satis- 
factory scheme  of  agricultural  education  can  be  built  up 
unless  it  is  approached  from  the  rural  sch(K)l.  Before  at- 
tempting to  discuss  this  question,  it  must  be  said  that  until 
rural-school  conditions  are  improve<l.  all  the  efforts  tt)ward 
training  teachers  for  rural  schools  will  not  result  in  placing 
those  teachers  in  the  schools  for  wiii<h  they  are  trained. 
Teachers  must  not  only  be  trained  but  satisfactorj-  places 
must  be  prei)are<l  for  them.  Fortunately  there  are  now 
signs  that  public  opinion  is  awakening  to  the  urgent  neces- 
sity of  establishing  such  conditions  in  tin-  rural  schools  us 
will  attract  and  keep  well-trained  teacher.^ 


no 


ACIUCrLTlIlAL  EDICATION 


The  (lc>,'rcc  of  a  toutlirr's  proparation  will  Ik'  ^ovorncd  l>y 
tlif  salary  paitl,  and  liie  sinial  aii<l  oIluT  coiiditions  that 
fxi.sl  ill  the  euiiimiiiiily  in  wliicli  hi-  i.s  to  work.  The  sala- 
ries paid  in  rural  districts  have  not  warranted  teachers  in 
spending  either  time  or  money  in  training'.  Another  con- 
sideration  that  has  i)revented  the  training,' of  rural  scluMtl- 
teachers  has  l)<><'n  the  too  jirevalent  belief  that  siM'cial  train- 
ing'is  not  reciuired.  A^'<M>d  teacher,  it  is  said,  will  t<'aehsvell 
any  when',  and  it  is  <-ontend<'d  that  tin-  training?  >,'iven  in 
the  onlinary  normal  scIkmiI  will  ajyply  e(|ually  well  to  both 
town  and  country  seh(M)ls.  The  general  training?  is,  of 
course,  of  service  to  any  teacher,  hut  the  cours*'  and  the 
practice  in  the  average  iu)rinal  school  are  spixially  designed 
to  meet  the  needs  of  (  ity  teachers,  ami  the  metluxls  ^'iven 
are  in  many  cases  such  as  can  he  applied  only  to  city 
.schools.  It  is  admitted  that  teachers  for  the  higher  branches 
of  at;ricultural  teaching  need  special  training.  Wliy  not 
admit  it  in  the  case  of  rural  school-teachers? 

TlIK   NEED  OF  SPECIAL  TR.\IM.N(;   FOK   ULIIAL  SCHOOL- 

TKA<  I1F:I{S 

The  management,  administration,  and  teaching  of  an 
ungraded  school  present  many  features  which  are  never 
found  in  a  town  or  city  school.  It  is  :i  comi)aratively  easy 
matter  to  draw  up  a  time-table  for  a  town  schrM)l,  in  which 
every  cla.ss  is  separate,  hut  it  is  a  different  proposition  to 
arrange  so  that  effective  work  will  be  securo<i  in  an  un- 
grade<l  school.  A  lesson  drawn  up  to  meet  all  logical  and 
psychological  re(iuirements  nuiy  be  well  suitcJ  to  a  class 
of  thirty  or  forty  pupils  in  a  graded  sch(K)l,  hut  the  .same 
lesson  might  {)rove  a  failure  if  given  to  a  cla.ss  of  two  or 
three  pupils  in  an  ungraded  .school.  .V  teacher  trained  in  a 
stale  normal  school  graduates  with  a  collection  of  lesson- 
plans  tirawn  up  in  accordance  with  all  t!ie  rwognized  rulc-J 
of  logic,  psychology,  school-management,  histtsry  of  edu- 
cation, etc.;  but  if  slic  ever  finds  herself  in  an  ungraded 


.  i 


THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACIIEUS 


HI 


scIkx)!  of,  say,  six  or  s<nen  classes,  ouch  one  i»f  whicli  must 
Ih'  kept  l)usy,  she  finds  that  these  phiiis  "will  i»>l  work." 
The  suhjt'it-mattcr  of  the  (liiTerent  studies  retjuires  s|h-- 
eial  adaptation  to  the  luvds  of  eountry  chililren.  bKal 
environnitiit  and  conditions  must  l)e  used  for  punxtses  of 
illustration,  and  the  work  should  have  a  direct  relati(»n  to 
everyday  experience.  This  exix-rieiuv  is  <|uite  forei^u  to 
the  teacher  unles.s  she  has  l)een  led  to  mak»'  a  s|)ecial  study 
of  it  during  the  course  of  her  training. 

THE   CHAl^VCTKU    OK   TllK   TKAININO    NEEDKD 

The  training  n.-eded  is  hoth  general  and  s|)ecial.  The 
general  training  is  that  re<iuired  hy  all  teachers.  The  s|)e- 
cial  training  iK'eded  is  that  which  is  closely  related  to.  an<l 
springs  out  of.  the  |M<iiliar  prohleins  of  ungratlcd  scIhh)! 
management  and  the  spec  ial  con<litiuns  of  the  districts  in 
which  these  schools  are  |)laced.  This  training  will  inclu<le 
nature-study,  directly  leading  to  agriculture,  household  sci- 
ence, manual  training,  and  the  c-orrelation  of  all  suhjcH-U 
with  farm  and  country  life.  Hut  this  is  not  sufficient.  The 
problem  is  much  more  than  merely  providing  the  future 
teacher  with  subject-matter.  If  this  were  the  only  thing  to 
be  done,  the  problem  would  soon  cease  to  l)e  a  probleiu.  It 
is  more  a  question  of  method  than  of  matter. 

Instruction  of  a  s(K-ial  and  economic  nature  is  needed  to 
prepare  the  future  teacher  to  act  as  a  leader  in  the  eonunu- 
nity.  This  should  give  some  insight  into  the  scn-ial  asptn  ts 
of  c>ountr>^  life.  It  should  teach  how  to  discover  the  actual 
conditions  of  the  community.  During  their  training  the 
students,  of  course,  will  not  l)e  able  to  study  the  actual  dis- 
tricts in  which  their  schools  may  be  placed,  hut  they  can  lie 
taught  the  meth(Kls  to  a{)|)ly  so  that  the  facts  may  1m-  «lis- 
covcred  in  any  locality.  They  should  Ix-  instructed  Low 
best  to  discover  certain  facts  alnnit  the  po|)iilation.  sucii  as 
increase  or  decrease  in  numbers  and  wliy.  number  of  illit- 
erates, and  so  on.    Facts  which  should  be  learned  about 


M 


i£^ 


2ii  A(.UI(ULTriUL  EDICATION 

economic  coiuliticiis  arc,  the  natural  resources,  the  nuniher 
of  st.K-k.  natural  prr..lu«ts,  cliicf  crops.  cliara<fcr  of  soils, 
size  ami  nuniLer  <.f  farms  iiiimlxTs  of  o\vmr>  and  tenants, 
the  ciTect  of  IciiaiKV  ..n  liif  life  of  the  coiniiiunity,  av<-raj;c 
wa^ics,  land-values,  ami  the  like. 

'ihe  WM-ial  comlitioiis  which  reipiire  investigation  are  the 
forms  of  recreation,  organizations—  their  purpose  and  con- 
dition, character  of  the  roads,  telephones,  rural-mail  df- 
livery,  moral  and  sanitary  conditions.  Teachers  should 
Ik-  ahlc  to  make  themselves  actjuainted  with  the  p-neral 
etlucutional  conditions  in  the  iiei^;hl>orhood.  They  .should 
make  imjuiry  into  the  inimher  of  chihiren  leaving  heforc 
the  com|)letion  of  the  cl<-inentary  scIukiI  course  and  the 
reasons  therefor,  the  amount  of  schooling'  received  l>y  the 
adults  in  the  district,  and  the  lil»raries,  with  the  new.spapcrs 
and  magaziiK's  generally  read. 

Intil  recently,  such  sut.jc.ts  were  considered  as  being 
entirely  outside  the  scoix-  ..f  the  teacher's  function.  It  is 
now  .swn  that  the  teacher's  usefulness  is  .seriously  h-ssened 
unless  he  is  able  to  di.scover  and  use  such  facts  as  the 
nhove.  In  the  rural  districts  the  functitm  of  the  teacher 
has  a  larger  MM-ial  hearing  than  it  has  in  towns  and  cities, 
and  it  is  largely  through  the  influence  exerted  in  the  homes 
that  the  teaching  can  he  related  to  the  dominant  interests 
of  the  people. 

THAININO    FOR    I'KKSONS    PUEI'.\RING   TO   TEACH 

The  vu'th(Hl.'<  in  Ontario.  —  Now  let  us  consider  types  of 
courses  that  have  Imhmi  develo|)etl  for  the  si)ecial  puri.ose 
of  training  rural  school-teachers.  In  the  IVovince  of  On- 
tario, teachers'  certificates  are  of  three  grades:  third  <lass, 
valid  for  two  years;  second  class,  (|ualifying  to  teach  in  any 
public  school;  and  first  <  las.s,  (pialifying  t..  teach  in  high 
schools.  A  tirst -class  teacher  may  obtain  a  specialist  certifi- 
cate by  taking  a  degree  co\irse  in  the  university.  The  poorer 
rural  schools  arc  i..  ucrally  tilled  by  the  third-cla>s  teaihcrs. 


THE  TILUNING  OF  TEA(  HERS 


iiS 


while  many  of  the  second  class  take  rural  s<'h(K)ls  until  Hicy 
can  oldain  appointments  in  town  s<1i(h)!s. 

For  tin- special  training' of  rural  school-lcaclicrs  llu-n-an-. 
in    the   provin<'c,   a   nuniU'r   of   s<h<H)ls   terine<i   "ino<lel 
M'hools."    These  are  nf'^Tally  estal»lishe«l  in  connection 
with  a  public  sc-hool  in  a  small  town,  usually  situat«-<l  in 
the  midst  of  an  agricultural  re^'ion.   The  scIkk)!  term  lasts 
four  months,  and  all  of  the  lime  is  sjM-nt  on  professional 
subjects,  with  a  brief  review  of   the  previous  aca<lemic 
training  of  the  pupils.    Candidates  are  admitted  to  these 
sch(X)ls  on  passing  an  examination  held  at  the  end  of  the 
first  two  years  of  high-sch(K)l  work,  so  that  all  have  reached 
a  fair  standard  of  academic  attainment.    No  teacher  is 
employed  in  any  rural  scIukjI  who  has  not  had  at  least  tw(j 
years  in  the  high  scIkh)!  except  in  siwcial  cases  in  the  poorer 
hxuilities.    The  mmlel  schools  are  situated  so  that  the  ma- 
jority of  the  i)Upils  are  able  to  live  at  home  while  in  attend- 
ance. Throughout  the  whole  of  the  model  school  cours<\  the 
|)roblemsof  the  rural  sch(H)l  receive  the  greatest  attention. 
Many  of  the  graduates  of  these  scIuhjIs,  after  having 
taught  one  or  two  years  in  an  ungraded  .sch<H)l  on  a  incMlel- 
school  certilicate,  take  the  examination  for  entrance  into 
one  of  the  normal  scho<jls,  of  which  there  are  s<'ven  in  the 
province.    The  length  of  the  term  in  the  normal  sc-hools  is 
from  SeptemlR'r  to  June,  but  those  students  who  have  had 
previous  teaching  exi)erience  take  the  final  examination  at 
Easter  time.   For  the  students  thus  graduating  there  wiis 
held  at  the  Ontario  .\gricultural  College  for  several  years  a 
spring  course  of  alx)ut  three  months.   The  lH)ard,  lodging, 
and  traveling  expenses  were  paid  by  the  Department  of 
Ktlucation.   The  o!)ject  of  this  course  was  to  train  teachers 
of  rural  .schcx)ls  in  subjwts  diri'ctly  Iwaring  on  the  problems 
of  agri<-ulture  and  rural  life.  For  the  purjiose  of  instruction 
and  .)i>servation.  the  entire  college  e<|uipment  was  at  the 
service  of  the  stu<lciils.    KrH-ourageineiit   has  been  given 
bv  the  fact  that  a  teacher  who  introduces  the  subject  of 


tn  ACiUU  ILTniAL  EDUCATION 

i-I.Mii.iitary  u^rirultuiv  into  lier  sclwx.l  receives  a  j,Tant  of 

if'.\()  aiiiiiially. 

riiis  coiirst-  has  now  Ixn-n  disioMliminl  and  its  place 
takiii  !»v  MiJiimtT  Mh'M.U,  l.y  atlmdini;  Isvo  <>f  wliicli.  aii.l 
c<)iii|.l<liiiK  a  pn-MTilK-d  cMirM-  uf  rt-adiiiK'.  in  a<lditiuii.  the 
U-acher  is  It'^^ally  (iiuiliii«'<l  l<»  tcacli  elniu'iitary  aKricul- 
turt-.  Kacli  sliidi'iil  is  mniimi  lo  n-ad  and  synopsi/e  at 
least  tl.nf  Ikm.Ls  in  tin-  intt-rval  Ixtw.fu  the  two  suinnier 
courses.  These  lM)uks  must  deal  with  uKTicultural  or  rural 

prohleins. 

The  alK)ve  course  of  training,  it  will  Iw  seen,  provides  a 
two-years  lii^;li-s«-luH)l  cours*-.  a  four-months  in(Klel-school 
ctnirse.aiid  an  ei^:ht-t>r  nine-months  normal-seh.K.I  course, 
in  all  of  which  aKricullure  is  ^'iven  a  itrominent  part.  At  the 
c..n.hi.>ion  ..f  a  courM-  of  this  character,  tiic  tea<  lier  should 
Im-  al.le  so  to  correlate  the  j;eneral  scIkm)!  work  with  aKricnl- 
ture  as  to  j;ive  it  the  agricultural  treml  re<|uired  in  rurvl 
schools.  .V  thr(H'-nionths  course  in  household  science  is 
fjiven  at  the  I'niversity  of  Toronto  on  the  same  ternus  as 
the  agricultural  cours««.  For  the  year  1914-15,  there  are 
«?()  sclu>ols  in  the  province  registered  with  the  Department 
of  Education  as  teaching  a^'riculture. 

Rural  tau'hera'  coiifrrnire.t.  —  The  al)Ove  plan  is  unique, 
and  has  within  it  jjreat  possihilities  for  the  training  of 
teachers  for  elementary  agriculture.    These  spring  and 
summer  courses  were  followe«l  by  a  rural-teachers'  con- 
ference lasting  one  wwk.    Kach  county  teachers'  asswia- 
tion  in   the  province  was  asked   to   send   two  delcfjates, 
.selected  from  the  rural  and  village  schools.  When  i.ossil)le, 
one  of  these  was  to  Ik-  a  teacher  who  had  received  special 
training'  in  a^'riculture  at   the  c«)lleKe,  an<l  the  other  a 
teacher  without  this  siM-cial  training.    In  l)oth  cases  they 
were  to   he  representative  teachers  who  were  conducting 
s<h(K.l  fiardens  or  teaching  agrictiUure.   They  were  also  to 
1k'  teachers  who  were  not  chan^'in;,'  s<hools.    I'nder  certiun 
rondiliuns  the  travclin-,  hoard,  and  lodging  exiK-nses  were 


TIIK  TUAININd  OF  TKA(  lU^ltS  ^ii 

,,,i,l  l,y  ihv  IVi.arlin.'„t  uf  K.luratiun.    A  .......U,'.  .ours*. 

fur  i„s,K-<t..rs  of  i.ul.lir  ..h.H.l.  i>  now  U-m^;  arniu^.-.l  ..„ 
,1^.  .a.nr  plan.  TUr  wl.ol,.  mImm,..-  is  uiuI.t  IIm-  i.mm- 
mniuMit  aii.l  dim  linn  uf  tl.r  •  Dimt-.r  ..f  Klniuntary 
A.'ri.ullural  K.lii<aliot..-  an  ..lli.«r..f  tlio  IVovmna!  D.- 
iKirtiiu'iit  of  Ktliualioii. 

Mrth^h  in  l/u-  r,„t,d  StiUe^.-Thv  \u\ivi\  Slatfs  has 
alta.  kfti  llie  i)rol.lfm  in  st-veral  .lilTi-rtMit  ways.   Us  .-(hica- 
liofial  institutions  are  so  many  an.l  .S4.  vari.-d.  and  th.-r.-  is  so 
imicli  ovrrlappinK'  and  dM|.li<ation  of  HTort.  that  it  is  al- 
ways diOirult,  if  not  itniM.ssil.lc.  to  iMiunuTati-  tlit-  .litTorent 
atomies  that  art«  engaKfd  in  any  i)artirular  liiu-  <.f  work. 
With  rcfori-nce  to  the  training  of  tracht-rs  (.f  a^'ricultiirc.  a 
rarcful  studv  of  the  dilTtTent   kin.ls  of  s<1uk.1s  mtiiis  to 
result  in  the dis'  overy  of  the  foUowing  six  ty|M-.s:  (1)  A^rn- 
<ultural  collenes;  (4)  siH-iial  detiu-hed  and  j.rivale  foun.ia- 
tions;    CD    educational    dejuirtnients   of    universities    and 
colleK'es;  (  \)  state  normal  s«Imm)1s;  (..)  hx-al  or  county  nor- 
mal s<-hools;  and  KJ)  hiiih  sch(H)ls. 

TeachcT-tTitlnimj  in  hUjh  >„hH,U.-  The  plan  of  train- 
ing rural-school  teachers  in  hi>.'h  s.Ihh.1s  has  In-en  lar^'ely 
a.lopted  within  recent  years.  There  are  two  plans  in  use. 
and  the  dillerenc-e  l)etween  the  two  systems  is  very  marked. 
In  New  York.  Micliinan.  and  Minnesota,  while  the  cla.s.sc3 
are  organized  in  eonmntion  with  high  sch(H)ls.  they  form 
entirely  M-parate  departments,  quite  .li.stinct  from  the 
hi^'h  school.  Ordinary  hinh-sch.H)!  subjects  are  not  given, 
and  the  coursi-s  are  not  credited  t<.ward  the  high-sch.H.l 
diploma.  Some  of  the  suhjec-ts  are  taught  l.y  the  high- 
sch.K.l  teachers,  hut  as  a  general  rule  the  class  is  taught 
ciitirelv  hy  its  own  teachers. 

In  other  states  the  course  forms  part  of  tlie  regular  high- 
scho«)l  course,  the  professional  subjects  In-ing  usually  <on- 
fuied  to  the  third  and  fourth  years,  or  to  the  fourth  year 
only.  Candidates  for  admission  to  thes««  courses  are  gen- 
erally re(iuired  to  lx>  seventeen  years  of  age.     The  c«jur.s«- 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  and     '^i  TEST  CHART  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


^'    11— 

I- 

i  1.8 


'.25 


1.4 


1.6 


^     APPLIED   iM^GE     Ir 


220 


AGIUCl  LTl'RAL  EDUCATION 


coiiUmics  for  lliirty-six  to  forty  weeks.  In  most  rases,  every 
ciroii  is  made  to  atlui)t  the  work,  to  the  re<iiiireiiieiits  of  the 
<oiiiitry  seliools.  If  tliis  u<laplatioii  ean  l)e  secured,  these 
aj^er.ciea  seem  to  oifer  the  most  immediately  availahle 
means  for  giviti}^  to  rural  teachers  at  least  a  partial  train- 
ing. 

Although  these  sch(H»ls  have  been  widely  cstahlished, 
there  is  nothing  like  unanimity  of  ojjinion  regarding  their 
usefulness.  The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  seems  to  Iw 
that  these  courses,  like  so  many  other  of  our  educational 
exi)edients,  are  simply  temporary  devices  until  we  are  able 
to  evolve  something  better.  That  they  supply  a  present 
need  cannot  l>e  doiilited. 

County  normal  .whooln.  —  The  (Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion reports  that  the  gra<luates  of  the  state  normal  schools 
are  able  to  sr.pply  less  than  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  de- 
mand for  new  teachers  in  the  eleinentar\'  schools  of  the 
country.  Teachers  train«-d  in  these  institutions  are  nearly 
till  absorlKnl  by  the  town  and  city  schools;  for  this  reason 
it  hits  been  found  necessarj'  to  establish  another  tyjx;  of 
sch(X)l  which  shall  definitely  prejjare  for  rural  work.  Prob- 
ably the  l)est  school  yet  developed  for  this  puri>ose  is  the 
local  or  county  normal  school. 

Such  -schools  have  been  developed  in  Wisconsin  and 
Michigan,  and  have  so  established  themselves  in  the  good 
opinion  of  tiie  educational  authorities  that  it  is  difficult  for 
any  teacher  to  get  a  position  in  those  states  without  having 
had  this  training.  The  first  of  the  Wisconsin  schools  was 
opened  in  181)9,  and  such  schools  are  now  in  o])eration  in 
many  difTerent  counties  in  the  state.  By  law  one  of  these 
.s(luH)ls  may  be  established  in  any  county  where  there  is 
not  already  a  state  normal  school.  The  county  pro\-ides 
the  building  and  eipiipment  and  one  third  of  the  cost  of 
maintenance,  aiul  if  the  school  is  apjiroved  by  the  State 
Education  Department  and  carries  out  the  regulations  of 
that  botly,  the  State  pays  the  other  two  thirds  of  the  cost 


THE  TILVIXING  OF  TEACHERS 


«7 


of  raaintenanoe.  la  some  counlies,  special  huildiiiKs  have 
hot-n  erected;  iu  others,  rented  (luarters  are  useil;  and  in 
still  others,  u  part  of  llie  liMal  hi^h-sehool  huildin^.'  is  used. 
No  ci.  .  da^e  can  be  admitted  to  these  schools  wlu)  has  not 
at  lea.>L  the  qualitications  reciuired  to  enter  a  standard  high 
.sch(Kjl. 

The  course  for  these  students  takes  two  years  for  com- 
pletion. High-school  graduates  are  allowed  to  complete  the 
course  in  one  year.    For  these,  there  is  arranged  a  spe<  ial 
course,  the  academic  work  of  the  two-years  course  lR>ing 
omitted  and  only  the  professional  work  included.    The 
courses  of  study  are  not  uniform  in  all  the  scIkh)1s.  hut  are 
nearly  so,  as  they  nmst  receive  the  approval  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  tMucation.    In  none  of  them  is  any 
attemi)t    inade   to  teach   the  usual   high-scluxtl   su!>jects. 
Much  work  is  done  in  nature-study,  agriculture,  and  do- 
mestic science,  all  with  s])ecial  reference  to  the  requirements 
of  the  rural  schools.  From  ten  to  twenty  weeks  of  practice- 
teaching  and  observation  in  the  small  rural  schools  of  the 
neighlwrhood  is  reciuire*!  for  graduation.   IIa\'ing  l)een  in 
existence  since  1H99,  these  schools  have  had  time  to  demon- 
strate their  usefulness.   The  county  sujxTintendents  who 
are  employing  their  graduates  are  at  one  in  saying  that 
their  work  is  far  suiierior  to  that  of  other  countrj'-school 
teachers.    These  scliools,  l)eing  local,  take  students  from 
the  locality  and  with  the  preparation  of  the  district  scIkjoIs, 
and  annually  return  a  large  trnmU'r  to  the  schools  from 
which  they  came. 

State  mmnal  .ichnols.  —  The  next  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  teacher-training  is  the  state  normal  school.  No 
matter  how  gocnl  the  work  is  in  the  lower  institutions,  the 
state  schot)ls  will  never  l)e  relieved  of  the  duty  they  owe 
to  the  rural  communities.  The  state  normals  have  taken 
many  years  to  rid  themselves  of  the  idea  that  teacher*  for 
rural  schools  needed  no  preparation  different  from  that 
t)f  teachers  who  intended  to  enter  urban  schools.     Their 


4 


228  AGUirrLTI'RAL  EDUCATION 

^radualos  \v«t<-  al.sdrlx'd  by  tlio  towns  and  cities,  so  what 
was  till-  use  of  attcinj. tiller  to  train  for  a  kin.l  of  xTvicc  u]um 
wlii<'li  the  ^'raduatc-.  never  enti-red.  lint  the  serious  condi- 
tion of  tlie  rural  schools  has  at  last  aroused  national  con- 
cern, and  many  of  the  state  schools  are  now  aware  that 
their  function  cannot  he  properly  ])erfornu'd  unless  they 
lake  definite  part  in  the  prei)aration  of  rural-school  teach- 
ers. Many  of  tin-  schools,  however,  even  yet  oiler  no  profes- 
sional course  specially  athipted  for  rural  schools,  hut  they 
do  ofTer  courses  in  auriculture,  household  science,  and  simi- 
lar subjects  of  special  vali-e  to  rural  teachers. 

The  w«)rk  to  he  done  l>y  any  normal  school  depends 
largely  "P<»"  *^^^"  IhinK-''-  lirst-  *•'«"  •^'■"^  "^  schools  in  which 
the  jiraduates  expect  to  work,  an<l.  second,  the  subjects 
re(|uired  to  be  tauf^'ht  in  the  i)ublic  schools  ol  the  state.  If  a 
.stale  has  a  small  rural  population,  as  in  Massachusetts, 
New  Jersey,  and  Rhode  Island,  it  would  be  a  duplication 
of  effort  for  all  to  offer  special  work  fr)r  rural  teacliers.  If 
the  i)0])ulatioii  is  chiefly  rural,  as  it  is  in  stales  like  North 
Dakota,  (ieor^ia.  Alabama,  and  vS)utli  Carolinu.  then  it 
hcconies  the  manifest  duty  of  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  schools 
to  offer  courses  which  will  fit  their  j,'raduates  for  the  work 
they  are  likely  to  meet.  When'  the  state  course  of  study 
re(iuires  nature-study,  agriculture,  manual  training,  and 
household  science  to  be  taught,  the  normal  school  must 
of  necessity  teach  not  only  these  subje<'ts,  but  also  the 
methods  of  teaching  them  in  the  elementary  .schools. 

.\mong  the  normal  schools  for  negroes,  many  are  giving 
special  courses,  but  only  two  an'  making  any  attempt  to 
train  teachers  especially  for  rural  schools.  These  two  are 
Tuskegee  Institute  and  IIami)loD  Institute.  The  normal 
deitartments  of  these  two  schools  concentrate  their  effort." 
on  the  training  of  rural  teachers.  They  both  give  work  in 
agriculture  and  other  rural  industries,  in  rural  sociology, 
and  rural-school  methods  and  management.  Hampton  has 
un  ungraded  school  as  part  of  the  institute,  and  supple- 


THE  TU.UNING  OF  TEACHERS 


4-29 


tm'uts  its  normal  work  u  itli  ohservution  in  selected  schools 
in  the  neiKlil><>rl't>"d. 

The  following  agricultural  suUjects.  among  others,  are 
necessary  for  the  ade<iuate  training  of  teachers  for  rural 
schools:  nature-study,  elementary  principles  of  agriculture, 
elementary  s;initation  and  hygiene,  household  scienc-e, 
manual  training,  and  practical  principles  and  prohlcins 
in  elementary  physics  and  chemistry  applied  to  these 

sul>jects. 

Some  states  are  making  special  efforta  to  interest  l)oy3 
and  girls  in  nornial-scho«jl  training.  In  Illinois,  for  example, 
a  law  called  the  "Normal  S<h(K)l  Scholarship  Law,"  was 
passed  in  1905,  which  provides  that  one  pupil  from  eadi 
township  in  the  state,  selected  by  examination,  may  Ik; 
given  free  tuition  in  one  of  the  normal  sc1uk>Is.  These  lM)y3 
and  girls  are  from  the  common  schools,  and  alxjut  ninety- 
Hve  i)er  cent  of  tliem  come  from  the  country  districts. 
Most  of  them  have  l)een  born  and  bred  on  the  farm,  and 
thus  have  had  exi)erience  in  farm  conditions.  With  this 
knowledge  as  a  basis,  it  may  be  ex])ected  that  the  agricul- 
tural training  of  the  normal  school  will  furnish  them  the 
ability  to  give  a  rural  l>ent  to  their  leaching  when  they 
return  to  the  rural  3(;hool. 

In  many  states  agriculture  is  now  a  required  subject  for 
teachers'  certiticates,  and  some  states  recjuire  the  subject  to 
l)e  taught  in  the  elementxiry  seho  Is.   This  has  forced  the 
work  into  the  curricula  of  the  normal  schiK)ls.  Many  nor- 
mal schools  offer  courses  in  cgriculture,  school-gardening, 
and  nature-study.    The  majority  of  these  courst>s  extend 
over  four  to  twelve  weeks,  but  a  considerable  number  oiTer 
a  full-year  course.    The  North  Adams   (Massachusetts) 
State  Normal  School  gives  a  three-years  course.  The  Mate 
Teachers'  College  of  Colorado   maintains  a   dci)artment 
of  agricultural  education  and  offers  nine  courses.     Each 
course  is  arranged  es{)ecially  for  rural  schcMjl-teachers,  and 
a  special  diploma  is  given.   Each  course  takes  sixty  hours, 


230 


AGRICULTUR.VL  EDUCATION 


and  the  courses  are  as  follows:  nat  ^re-study,  elementary 
a^'riculture.  scliool  ^iirdens,  soils  and  croi)s  of  the  farm, 
farm  animals,  dairy  industry,  i)Oultry  husbandry,  horticul- 
ture on  the  farm,  the  farm  home,  rural  sociolo^'y,  and  the 
rural  school. 

It  is  from  the  three  sources.  —  the  hi^h  schools,  county 
normal  schools,  and  state  normal  schools,  —  that  the 
trained  elementary  teachers  must  come;  and  it  is  the  first 
and  second  of  these  that  will  j)rei)are  the  majority  of  the 
rural  teachers.  Upon  these  teachers,  probably  more  than 
on  any  other  class,  will  dei>eud  the  attitude  of  the  country 
child  toward  agriculture. 


TRAINING   TKACUERS   ALREADY    IN    SERVICE 

In  addition  to  tlie  teachers  iM'ing  trained  for  future 
service,  there  are  a  large  numlnir  of  teachers  now  employed 
who  have  had  little  or  no  training  either  in  the  subject  of 
agriculture  or  in  methods  of  teaching.  It  will  take  many 
years  to  supi)ly  all  the  .s<hcK)ls  with  proi)erly  trained  teach- 
ers. Many  agencies  are  now  l)eing  employed  to  give  the 
teachers  already  in  service  some  knowledge  of  the  newer 
subjects  and  the  methods  that  may  l>e  used  to  teach  them 
elfeetively.  These  agencies  have  arisen  mainly  for  the 
following  reasons:  — 

1.  Many  teachers  enter  the  profession  with  little  train- 
ing, and  therefore  need  to  be  trained  while  in  service. 

'2.  Complete  training  is  impossible  before  service  l)egins, 
as  the  student  has  not  the  necessary  experience  or  back- 
ground to  make  it  etieetive. 

:>.  Teaching  should  l)e  a  progressive  calling,  —  there  is 
no  standing  still;  and  the  teacher  who  does  not  keep 
abreast  of  the  times  (piiekly  Ix'comes  ineOicient.  For 
economic  efficiency  and  educational  progress,  the  teaching 
staff  in  our  schools  must  be  kept  to  its  highest  state  of 
perfection. 

ISummer  nchwln.  —  Summer  and  vacation  schools  have 


THE  TILUNING  OF  TEACHERS 


231 


[onK'  l>een  considered  a  vital  function  of  educational  insti- 
tutions and  form  one  of  the  most  efTective  nietlunls  of 
training  teachers  while  in  service,  particularly  when  the 
suhjects  are  treatc<l  intensively.    If  s*)  arranged  that  the 
work  may  1)6  continued  through  two  or  three  summer 
sessions,  the  summer  school  can  really  ho  made  in  effect  a 
normal  course.  It  has  long  l>een  the  practice  in  many  uni- 
versities U)  give  a  year's  credit  for  intensive  work  in  mathe- 
matics, languages,  science,  and  other  suhjects  pursued  in 
an  ai)proved  summer  schwl  of  six- weeks  duration.   The 
siimc  can  l)c  and  is  being  done  in  agriculture.   A  typical 
live-weeks  course  in  connection  with  one  of  the  universities 
in  the  United  States  devotes  one  week  to  soils,  one  to 
plants,  one  to  animals,  one  to  birds  and  insects,  and  one  to 
agricultural  economics.   It  is  particularly  imiwrtant  that 
the  instruction  given  in  summer  schools  for  teachers  shall 
be  concrete. 

Teachers'  inntitittes.  —  In  most  states  and  provinces,  the 
teachers'  associations  are  required  to  hold  one-  or  two-day 
institute  meetings  during  the  year.   These  are  for  the  pur- 
jwse  of  bringing  the  teachers  into  contact  with  each  other 
and  making  them  actjuainted  with  recent  developments  in 
the  work  of  the  schools.  The  country  teacher  probably  suf- 
fers from  the  isolation  of  country  life  more  than  the  farmer. 
Frequent  meetings  with  other  teachers  is  one  means  o£ 
relieving  this  isolation.  These  meetings  are,  of  course,  too 
short  for  any  systr  «atic  instruction  in  agriculture.   Their 
main  purpose  is  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  teachers  the 
most  recent  progress,  the  new  methods,  new  books,  bulle- 
tins, and  other  publications  on  the  subjwt  of  agriculture 
and  the  various  sources  of  information  that  are  open  to 
teachers. 

A  study  of  the  program  offered  in  recent  years  at  insti- 
tute meetings,  reveals  the  fact  that  agricultural  subjects 
are  receiving  much  greater  attention  than  ever  Iwfore.  As 
the  teachmg  of  agriculture  depends  very  much  on  the  atti- 


i  il 


£K 


AGIIK  [LTIILVL  EDIXATION 


liide  of  the  tfachcr,  aiiytliiriK  that  can  infliunre  this  atti- 
tude favorably  is  a  (iecidcd  ^-aii;.  At  the  elo.M-  of  every  in- 
stitute meeting,  auuouneenieiit  shouM  Ik'  made  regarding 
any  summer  courses,  lecture  courses,  or  other  means  o|>en 
to  teachers  for  obtaining  furtfier  information  or  training. 
In  n.a!iy  caM's,  speakers  are  ohiained  from  farmers'  insti- 
tutes or  agricultural  colleges  to  a<ldress  the  teaclu-rs  on 
agricultural  suhjwts.  In  some  states  the  superinten<lents 
of  pulilic  instruction  regard  the  farmers'  institutes  as  one 
of  the  most  powerful  agencies  they  can  enlist  in  the  work  of 
introducing  agriculture  into  the  elementary  schools. 

('i)rr«!<iH))(d<ti(r  coarsen.  —  The  correspondence  method 
of  instruction  has  also  achieved  marked  success  in  this  con- 
nection. Such  courses  have  now  almost  [)asse<l  tJie  period 
of  hostile  criticism,  and  they  are  accomplishing  nmch  in  the 
field  of  industrial  training.  Why  should  the  corresj)ond- 
ence  method  not  he  ap|)lied  to  agriculture?  Corresp^md- 
ence  courses  specially  adapted  for  teachers  who  are  re- 
quired to  give  instruction  in  nature-study  and  elementary 
agriculture,  but  who  have  received  no  specific  training 
thiTcfor,  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  do  much  good. 
Until  recently  the  work  of  ci>rn"sj)ondence  instruction  was 
left  almost  entirely  to  private  and  commercial  enteri)ri.se, 
but  it  is  now  being  adopted  somewhat  generally  by  the  uni- 
versities, colleges,  and  schools.  In  the  training  of  teachers 
in  service,  the  corresp(»ndence  methwl,  if  pro|X'rly  carried 
out,  has  great  po.ssibilities. 

There  is  a  mass  of  material  available  for  general  reading 
on  the  subject  of  agriculture,  but  not  nnich  of  it  will  directly 
aid  the  rural  teacher.  It  will  not  Im»  of  much  use  to  direct 
the  average  teacher  to  bulletins  and  books,  however  gmnl 
they  may  be.  ( 'our.ses  nnist  be  organized  on  «lefinite  to|)ics, 
and  must  not  be  ctmfined  to  the  jiurpose  of  giving  informa- 
tion. They  must  contain  methods,  plans,  and  devices  that 
can  be  a|)|)lied  to  tlie  average  rural  school  under  ordinary 
conditions.    They  nmst  be  conducted  by  jK'rsons  who  are 


:1 


THE  TRAINING  OF  TK.U  lIEliS 


itiS 


sympathetic  toward  rural  rr<|iiir»'iii«'nts.  .\rniti|:«'tiu'nts 
should  \h'  rnadf  for  an.swfring  (jucslioiis  and  snK  ing  ditli- 
cultios  promptly.  Provision  iniKlit  also  Ik"  mado  for  a 
traveling  instructor  in  c«)nncction  with  tln'sc  courses. 
Whert!  a  numlx-r  of  students  in  one  IcH-alify  an-  pursuing 
the  same  ctmrse,  the  (Kcasional  visit  of  such  an  instructor 
would  act  as  a  d<>cided  stinmlus. 

After  the  courses  have  In-en  organized,  tlie  next  (piestion 
that  aris«'s  is  how  students  are  to  he  ol)laine<l.  Every  state 
department  of  education  should  have  its  corresjMtndence 
branch,  and  correspondence  court's  might  Ik*  contlucte«l  by 
the  colleges  or  high  s<h(K)ls.  Could  not  the  taking  of  such 
a  course  Ije  made  mandatory  for  all  who  have  not  received 
a  certain  amount  of  training?  If  this  should  ln'  considered 
inadvisable,  why  should  we  not  slu-d  some  of  our  sui)iK)sed 
dignity  and  adopt  the  nietluKls  that  have  l)een  so  successful 
in  the  ca.se  of  the  commercial  schcnds,  utilizing  advertise- 
ment and  publicity.  These  schools  go  after  business,  and 
hundreds  of  young  men  and  women  previously  unaware  of 
the  existence  of  such  .schools  are  induced  to  take  courses. 
The  public  sch(X)ls  might  l>e  etjually  as  successful  by  the 
expenditure  of  even  less  effort. 

Itinerant  teachers.  —  Another  very  effective  means  of 
enabling  the  rural  teacher  to  teach  agriculture  is  by  means 
of  the  peripatetic,  or  itinerant,  teacher.  This  methfKl  has 
the  advantage  of  combining  supervision  with  training. 
City  .schools  have  visiting  teachers  and  su[)ervisors  for  cer- 
tain subjects,  and  .some  states  have  adopted  a  similar  plan 
for  agriculture  in  rural  schools.  One  teacher  can  visit  .sev- 
eral .schools  during  a  week.  In  commencing  this  work,  it  is 
generally  necessary  for  the  visiting  teacher  to  give  the  in- 
struction himself;  but  he  should  .so  arrange  matters  that  the 
teacher  will  be  able  eventually  to  carry  the  work  under  his 
sui)ervision.  This  plan,  pro{)erly  carried  out,  imi)rf)ves  the 
instruction  in  the  school  while  at  the  siime  time  the  teacher 
is  being  trained.   In  some  districts  it  should  be  possible  for 


i  1 


834 


AGRICrLTlRAL  EDITATION 


the  tonrhpr  in  tho  lii^'li  .v}km)I  to  suiktvIsc  the  teaching  of 
uj;rirultur«'  in  tlic  t-K'tiK'ntary  school.s  of  tin-  lu-ighhorluMMi. 
Some  nH'tlmd  sliouM  l)o  «lcvi.so<J  by  which  the  students 
leaving  the  various  training  institutions  may  l»e  kei)t  in 
touch  with  ih*-  parent  institutioi:,  and  no  in-tter  plan  could 
he  arrange*!  tlian  a  series  of  visits  by  the  teacliers  of  those 
institutions  to  the  schools  in  which  their  graduates  are  en- 
gaged. Kven  willi  the  Ix-st  training  in  the  scho<jls,  tliere 
will  always  Ih"  n«tMl  for  further  training,  advice,  and  en- 
couragement, such  as  could  be  given  during  visits  of  this 
character. 


THE  TUAIMXO   OK   TEAniEItS   FOR   HIGHER   HCHOOLS 

The  institutions  previously  descrilx'd  arc  concerned 
mainly  with  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  elementary 
s<h(M)ls.  Teachers  for  secondary  and  higher  s<h«K)ls  are 
also  re(juired.  For  these  we  must  l(H)k  to  the  universities, 
either  sei)arately  or  in  combination  with  the  colleges  of 
agriculture.  Many  graduates  of  the  colleges  of  agriculture 
are  now  teaching  in  secondary  schools.  I'nfortunately, 
however,  in  many  cases  these  students  have  had  no  si)ecial 
training  in  |K*dagogical  method,  and  as  a  consequence  their 
w<  k  has  not  In^en  so  efrective  as  it  otherwise  would  have 
been.  It  may  lie  laid  down  as  a  general  i)rinci|)le  that 
neither  an  agricultural  college  that  does  not  devote  ade- 
quate attention  to  the  professional  side  of  teaching,  nor 
a  university  that  has  not  sufficient  equipment  for  agricul- 
ture, can  alone  effectively  train  s|)ecialists  for  teaching 
agriculture  in  seeondarj-  s<^'hools. 

The  colleges  are  recognizing  that  agricultural  exj)erience 
and  pedagogical  training  are  both  necessarv.  In  accordanc-e 
w  il'.i  this  belief.  Teachers  C'ollege  at  Columbia  University 
gives  credit  for  certain  courses  in  the  New  York  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  I'niversity.  Another  arrange- 
ment of  this  type  is  tliat  in  effwt  between  the  University  of 
Toronto  and  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College.    A  course 


THK  TR.UNING  OF  TILVCIlEllS 


«S3 


four  years  in  hnRth  has  Int-n  t)r^»anizrd.  two  of  whi<li  arc  to 
Im<  spout  in  the  univorsily  and  two  at  tlu«  a^TicuItural  col- 
lege. The  surfpssful  completion  of  this  coursf  entitles  the 
student  to  the  dej;ree  of  Baehelor  of  Science,  and  (juaUfiea 
him  to  teach  agriculture  or  general  science,  or  both  when 
needed. 


THE   OUADTATK   SfMIOClL  OF   AORKTLTfRE 

Sin<t'  the  siunnier  of  ld(H,  a  (iraduate  School  of  Xgri- 
culture  has  l)een  held  at  selected  colleges  and  universitit-s 
in  the  United  States.    This  is  intended  to  furnish  opjior- 
tunity  for  extended  tiiscussion  of  topics  relate*!  to  agricul- 
ture and  the  nieth(Kis  of  teaching  it.   The  reiiuirernents  for 
admission  are  as  follows:  "Only  i>ersons  who  have  com- 
plete<l  a  college  course  and  taken  a  bachelor's  degree  will  l)e 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  the  .sclux)l.  except  that  |)er- 
niission  may  \^e  granted  to  non-graduates  who  are  recom- 
mended l)y  the  faculty  of  the  college  with  which  they  are 
connected,  as  persons  properly  qualified  to  profit  by  ad- 
vanceil  instruction  in  agriculture."   The  school  is  open  on 
etjual  terms  to  l)oth  sexes,  and  it  continues  for  four  weeks. 
Most  of  the  agricultural  colleges  offer  postgraduate  work 
in  agriculture.    Many  offer  courses  leading  to  the  master's 
degree,  and  a  few  give  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
The  Graduate  School  of  Agriculture,  the  various  post- 
graduate courses,  and  the  stations  for  experiment  and 
research,  crown  the  rather  motley  edifice  that  ha.s  been 
erected  to  provide  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  agricul- 
ture. 


I 

I 


("HAITKIl   XIV 

THK   KXAMI'LK   OK    DKVMAKK 

A  sTiDV  of  !i;;ri<iiltiiral  ('(liicatioii  could  not  Ih'  c-on- 
hidrn-d  as  cvfii  |)arlially  fomplric  without  som«'  itnisid- 
fratirni  U-iii^;  \:\\vn  to  tlir  rcmarkalil*'  sii(<'<'ss  tliat  luis 
attended  the  elForts  of  educators  in  c«T(ain  forei^;n  ct>iin- 
tries,  notaldy  iti  Denmark.  NotwitlistaiHlin^'  the  pro^Tess 
that  Canada  and  the  I'nited  States  have  made,  tliey  have 
yet  much  to  do,  and  in  the  doinj:  of  it  they  may  learn  n 
fireat  deal  from  a  study  of  the  •iietlxHls  emi)loyed  in  coun- 
tries that  lm\e  aclii«'V«'d  notul»le  agricultural  prosiR-rity. 


TIIK    AfanciLTlKAL    HITrATION    IN    DKNMAUK 

The  <'ontin('nt  of  KurojM'  has  many  striking  examples  of 
rogeiieration  through  agri<-ultunil  education,  but,  by  uni- 
versal consent,  Denmark  is  admitted  to  ]>c  the  country 
that  has  accomplished  the  greatest  results  in  agricultural 
betterment.  In  lH^'>^,  she  ranked  very  low  e<t)n()mically  in 
the  list  of  nations.  She  was  faced  by  national  ruin  as  the 
result  of  a  disastrous  war;  she  was  <leprived  of  .some  of  her 
fairest  provinces;  she  was  forced  to  pay  a  heavy  war  in- 
demnity; and  her  chief  market  was  closed  by  a  high  tariff. 
This  combination  of  difficulties  and  di.sasters  arou.sed  the 
people  to  acti\ity.  Agents  were  sent  out  by  the  government 
to  investigate  what  other  eoimtries  were  doing  agricultur- 
ally, and  to  study  the  re<juirements  of  the  Knglish  markets. 
The  results  of  this  activity  soon  became  evident. 

The  area  of  Denmark  is  about  1.'), .>()()  s'juare  miles,  which 
is  about  one  lliird  as  large  as  the  State  of  Mississippi.  Its 
pojiulation  in  1!)11  was  '2,7.")7.()7n,  almost  wholly  Sand'"- 
navian,  onlv  three  jwr  cent  Iwing  foreign-born.  Eight  mil- 
liuu  (8,177,1(59)  acres  are  iu  farms.    Outside  the  city  of 


THE    KXAMI'LE  OF   UKNMAHK 


iM 


(•..|>«-nli:it:<-ri.  wliidi  .oiitains  tiUmt  one  fifth  of  the  ih)|)u1u- 
linii.  Ilinr  Jiftlisc.f  the  ixM.pIr  liv«'  ill  th«' coiiiitry  it.sdf  and 
..ric  fiflli  in  thr  <<.iiiilrv  towns.  I)atii>h  i-onditions  <ii)T«T 
iiiatt'riiilly,  in  >*,.mr  rrsi.<-.tv  fmni  thnv  ohtainin^'  in  North 
Atnrrica.and  it  will  In-  wril  f..  cun^iiliT  .sonic  of  these  ditTor- 
.n.fs  Inforc  l.H.kin^.'  at  the  provision  made  for  a^'rirultural 
r(in<afion  and  organization. 

Only  alK.ut  twenty  five  |mt  cent  <.f  the  p«-ople  .lepend 
upon  mannfaetnrinj,'  and  IdiildiiiK'  industries.  Tin-  Danish 
fanner  d<K>s  not  consider  u  Iar^;e  area  of  land  necessary  in 
onler  to  enahlo  him  to  make  a  (Unnl  living,  (hit  of  more 
than  •2.')<).n<M»  rural  pro|)rietors.  tlM-n-  are  more  than  7<».<MM) 
with  holdings  under  one  and  one  third  a<Tes,  and  .small 
farm.s  are  the  nile  throughout  the  country.  The  gr)vern- 
ment  makes  it  a  part  of  its  policy  to  a.ssisl  small  farmers 
and  lal>orers.  who  have  previously  worked  for  other  farm- 
ers, to  estahlish  tln-ir  own  farms,  huild  their  own  homes, 
and  iHH-ome  indeiM-ndent  proprietors.' 

The  small  size  of  the  fa-nis  nniders  intensive  farming 
neees.siiry.  The  homogeneity  of  the  population  iinikes  or- 
ganization of  all  kind.s  easy.  The  whole  |)eop!e  live  prac- 
tically untler  the  .same  climatic  conditions.  Through  the 
influence  of  their  rural  high  schools  and  their  agricultural 
schools,  tlie  people  have  l>een  trained  t«)  coojieratc. 

The  alKive  outstanding  differences  between  the  Danish 
and  American  farmers  an'  such  that  the  application  of  Dan- 
ish meth(Mls  to  American  conditions  is  rendered  somewhat 
difficult,  and  perhaps  in  many  ca.ses  undesirable. 

THK    f<K)PERATIVE   MOVUMF.NT 

It  will  now  repay  us  to  consider  some  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  Danish  agricult\iral  organization.  In  IHtiO.  the 
British  vice-consul  at  Copenhagen  reiM)rted  to  his  govern- 
ment that  "butter,  or  what  is  sold  under  that  name,  is 
execrably  bad."  To-day  Danish  butter.  Danish  bacon,  and 
'  Mormiu^  James  B.    Principle*  oj  Rural  Credih. 


It 


238 


AGRICULTUR.\X  EDUCATION' 


Danish  cfi^s  rank  in  price  and  fjuality  at  the  top  of  the 
Knglish  market.  The  following?  tahle  '  shows  the  prowth  in 
the  sales  of  these  products  through  organized  effort:  — 

1S.>1  1!)10 

Exports  f.f  liiittrr                       $!).iiKI.(M»0  $.->0,.-,{M»,(K)0 

Kxix)rt.s  of  l)ii<on                            ^(XMI.IMH)  »4.0«XI,(M)() 

Kxiyirts  of  <->;),'3                                  3(M),(MK)  T.fKKI.fMK) 

ToUl                                     $ll,j(M),000  $U1,5()*MMK) 

In  1912,  there  were  marketed,  throuph  the  eoof>erative 
system,  ejrps,  butter,  bacon,  and  meats  to  the  value  of 
$121,000,000. 

How  was  all  this  brought  about?  Enj,Iand's  opportuni- 
ties were  as  great  as  Denmark's  for  tlie  production  of  but- 
ter, yet  Denmark  has  captured  the  English  butter  market. 
The  imi)rovement  of  the  butter  commenced  with  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  dairy  sch(X)l  at  Coi)enhagen,  where  an 
army  of  butter-makers  was  trained.  Exj)erts  were  sent 
fro'u  city  to  city  throughout  the  whole  of  the  British  Isles 
to  study  the  British  markets,  and  these  agents  sent  home 
weekly  reports  as  to  what  those  markets  demanded.  But- 
tr^^f-scoring  contests  were  inaugurated  by  the  Danish  Gov- 
ernment, so  that  each  maker  could  comjjare  his  product 
with  that  of  his  fellows. 

The  large  growth  in  the  production  of  butter  was  made 
possible  by  the  increase  in  the  productive  capacity  of  the 
individual  cow  rather  than  by  increasing  the  number  of 
cows.    This  is  shown  by  the  following  table:  — 

Number  of  milking  cvu»  Value  of  exported  butter 
1893                                   1.011,980  $lH.7iO,<KM) 

1903  1.089,073  $Kt,;{i(»,(HH) 

1910  l,!d80.000  $oO,5(K),000 

Thus,  the  number  of  milking  cows  had  been  increased  by 
twenty-six  per  cent,  while  the  value  of  the  butter  had  been 
increased  by  more  than  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  per 
cent.    One  Danish  authority  states  that  the  average  yield 

'  Hoyal  romiuivsion  on  Imliistrial  Eilueatinn.    Part  3,  vul.  1. 


THE  EXAMPLE  OF   DEN'>LVRK 


«9» 


of  milk  of  the  Danish  cow  in  1890  was  6170  pounds.  In 
the  Isle  of  Fyen,  wliich  c<intains  some  of  the  In-st  land 
in  the  c-ountry,  '20.000  cows  gave  an  average  yield  of 
8100  {Miunds  in  1010.' 

After  the  capture  of  the  butter  market,  the  Danes  con- 
centrated their  attention  on  the  pnKluction  of  high-grade 
I)ork.  Agents  were  sent,  as  Infore.  to  England.  These 
agents  discovered  that  England  obtainiMl  her  choicest  iK)rk 
products  from  Ireland,  and  representatives  were  sent  to 
that  country  to  study  how  Irish  bacon  was  pnxluced.  A 
large  sum  was  six-nt  in  studying  the  food-combinations 
necessary  to  prrxluce  the  highest  quality  of  product.  The 
results  are  shown  by  the  exin.rt  of  $^2,000,000  worth  of 
bacon  in  1881,  more  than  $^2^2,000,000  in  1901,  and  more 
than  $34,000,000  in  1910. 

Some  years  ago,  a  trust  was  formed  in  I^ndon  to  control 
the  bacon  industry.  It  fixed  the  price  to  the  farmer  and  the 
price  to  the  con.sumer.  This  meant  disaster  to  the  Danish 
farmer.  But  he  met  this  danger,  as  he  had  met  his  former 
difficulties,  by  coiiperation.  He  formed  a  selling  agency  of 
his  own.  The  Danish  Bacon  Company  of  Ix)ndon  not  only 
destroyed  the  trust,  but  it  insured  to  the  Danish  farmer  a 
sure  market  for  his  product  whereby  the  farmer  should  get 
all  that  his  labor  produces.  He  is  not  despoiled  by  ware- 
housemen, or  by  railway  or  other  monopoly  charges.* 

In  the  year  1910,  the  total  value  of  all  iK)rk  products  ex- 
ported tnm  the  I'nitetl  States  was  $13,5.9.59.373.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  little  Denmark,  less  than  one  fourth  ;us 
large  as  Wisconsin,  and  alx)ut  one  third  as  large  as  New 
York  State,  exported  more  than  one  fourth  as  much  jmrk 
as  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  which  considers  pork  as 
one  of  its  very  important  protlucts. 

»  Report  of  Royal  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Tochnical  Educa- 
tion.    Ottawa. 

«  Sp«ial  Report  on  .\griculture.  State  Board  of  llogcnlA  Lharkstou, 

West  Virginia. 


m 


240 


AGRICILTI'RAL  EDUCATION 


Tho  same  i)ro;,Tos.sivrnrss  has  beon  rvi(lonr<'(l  all  throiiph 
Danish  afrriciilturc.  Tlu'  itiarvchms  proj^Tcss  of  tho  coun- 
try has  hoen  attributed  to  many  causes,  the  chief  of  which 


are: 


1,  The  extent  to  whidi  the  coo^M^rative  movement  has 
grown. 

2.  The  cliaraeter  of  the  [)eo|)le,  which  makes  cobpcra- 
tion  possible  and  practicable. 

;}.  The  j^'eneral  education  of  the  [KMiple  in  the  "people's 
hi^ii  sc1kk)1s." 

4.  The  efficient  state  of  education  in  the  rural  districts. 

.').  The  efforts  of  the  ajiricultural  schools,  and  the  gen- 
eral agricultural  organization. 

THE   KINDS   OK    (•OOI'F;nATIVE   ORGANIZATIONS 

The  cooperative  organizations  may  be  divided  into  three 
main  classes:  — 

1.  l'roductiv<>  cor(j)erative  associations,  such  as  cream- 
eries (begun  in  ISSO).  meat-packing  plants  (18S7),  and 
cooperative  s(K-ieties  for  the  exportation  of  eggs  (1890). 

2.  roiiperative  societies  for  the  analysis,  investigation, 
and  improvement  of  the  different  branches  of  produce- 
breeding  live-stock. 

3.  Cooperative  societies  for  purchase  and  distribution 
of  seeds,  fertilizers,  machines,  implements,  etc.  The  first 
of  these  was  established  in  1886.  The  capitiil  for  most  of 
these  undertakings  is  rai.sed  on  the  collective  credit  of  the 
members. 

In  these  associations,  the  hns'mand  (small  farmer)  has 
one  vote,  and  the  large  fanner,  with  many  times  the  value 
of  land,  is  also  allowed  only  one  vote.  The  small  farmer  is 
put  on  an  ecpial  footing  with  tlie  large  producer  and  does 
('((ually  well  in  jjrojuirtion  to  the  cajjital  he  has  invested. 
The  farmer  is  relieved  from  the  risks  of  marketing,  and  is 
saved  (lie  waste  of  time  involved.  His  business  is  done  by 
trained  men,  and  he  is  not  at  the  mercy  of  commission 


TllE   EX.V-MPIE  OF    DENMARK 


i\l 


a>,'<Mil.s  or  otluTs.  Hy  Loin-  r.  u-vi-.l  of  those  dutios.  hv  is 
al)le  to  devote  the  wiiole  of  his  time  to  the  prodiutive  end 
of  his  business.  All  the  I.mmI  associations  have  joine.l 
themselves  int..  centra'  ass.,.iations.  and  there  is  thus  i-o- 
ordination  of  effort  throughout  tlic  land. 

These  societies  are  or^'ani/.d  for  doing  the  i.usmess  and 
not  for  doing  the  work  of  the  farm,  although  a  numU-r  of 
them  emph»y  exi)ert  advis.-rs  to  assist  the  fiirmer  in  hruig- 
ing  his  product  up  to  the  standard  required  hy  the  ass«Kia- 
tion.   The  individualism  of  the  farmer  seems  to  have  heeii 
swallowed  up  in  a  highly  developed  community  si)irit.  The 
Danes  obtain  high  prices,  and  these  prices  are  the  result  of 
..niclent  business  management.   They  lake  out  of  the  llnt- 
i.h  Isles  over  eight  million  dollars  annually;  more  than 
any  other  nation  obtains  for  an  e.iual  .luantity  of  the  same 
pnulucts.    Many  slat.-,  in  the  Tni-.n  are  probably  .lomg 
a.  much  in  the  way  of  ,^v^tcmatic  agri.ultural  e.lu.ation  as 
Demnark  is  .loing,  but  in  the  application  of  business  meth- 
od, to  the  dispo.sal  of  j.roducts  they  have  not  y.-t  In-gun  to 
learn  the  les.son  which  was  mastered  by  the  Danes  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  centurj-  ago.    The  Danes  might  have 
taken  Uoosevelfs  phrase.  "  better  farming,  better  busi- 
ness, better  living."  for  their  m.)tt.);  but  they  \Aaced  better 
business  first,  an.l  the  results  have  justiti.-.i  th.-ir  judgment. 

TiiK  pk.>i'Lk's  iii«;n  s<iicmjl..s 
The  leaders  among  the  Danish  pe..ple  attribute  a  large 
measure  of  the  success  to  the  people's  high  scho<»ls.  Vari- 
ous other  names  have  been  given  to  these  schools.  "i)eas- 
a-ifs  high  .s.-hools."  "folk  high  .schools."  an.l  "poi.ular 
high  schools":  but  they  are  known  generally  by  the  name 
nrst  given.  These  schools  are  uni.iue.  an.l  thus  far  have  not 
been  adopted  by  any  other  country.  Th.-  ( •om»nssi..ner  of 
K.lucation  of  the  Vnitd  States  is  so  convinced  .)f  "  tlie  part 
these  schools  have  played  in  th-  remarkable  and  rapi-ily 
increasing  prosperity  of  the  Danish  pople,"  thai  in  ttie 


242  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 

winter  of  IDl^i  he  detailed  three  special  investipatcrs  to 
prcH-ml  to  Denumrk  to  make  a  close  study  of  Ua.u.h  e.luea- 
tio,.al  eondili.>n.s.  One  of  these-  investigators  was  uistruc-  ed 
to  concentrate  his  attention  on  the  people  s  lugh  sc1kk,1s 

II  is  difheult  to  descrilK'  the^.-  scho<,ls.     Ihey  are  not 
schools  in  the  generally  accepted  sense  of  the  term.    Ihere 
are  no  examinations,  no  diplomas,  no  con.pulsory  attend- 
ance   They  are  not  schools  for  any  special  type  of  educa- 
tion."l.ut  scH..n  to  have  Inx-n  eslahUshed  for  the  pun.osc>  o 
crealhig  a  spirit  of  nationalism  a.id  nmty.  winch  would 
enal.le  the  people  to  work  together  for  the  common  g.HK^. 
They  were  the  ccmception  of  Bishop  Grundvig.    H.s   dta 
was  to  develop  the  man  by  clucation,  Imt  he  said    ha 
"cducati(.n  should  not  be  rendered  in  such  a  manner    hat 
it  breeds  despondency  and   contempt   for  ^v-'•k    l.ut  so 
that  it  ennobles  a  man's  work  and  heightens  his  abilitj  to 

^"iCir  origiti  dates  back  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
The  first  plan  was  thai  of  a  great  school  at  so.ne  central 
,,,i,.l;  hut  owing  to  the  death  of  the  King,  who  ha.l  given 
t  support,  this  plan  was  never  carrie.l  out   home  years  later 
a  nu  Jilied  plan  was  adopted.  The  i<lea  of  one  great  schoo 
gave  wav  to  a  number  of  small  schools,  and  the  movemen 
became  'one  of  the  people.   The  first  senool  ^-^;^^f^^ 
at  U    Iding  in  1845,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  fcK'li  e..  yg. 
w' -c-h  at  that  time  was  Danish  territory.   This  and  other 
schools  established  during  the  early  years  did  not  prosper 
and  for  nearly  thirty  years  the  movement  failed  to  appea 
to  the  people.  .\s  one  of  their  leaders  says.  >  The  movement 
was  at  first  UH>ked  upon  as  a  fantastic  dreani  of  imi,racti- 
cal  .ninds,  imp.Kssible  to  realise,  or,  when  perhaps  realized, 
producing  ilay -dreamers." 

\f ter  the  war  with  Prussia  in  18G 1,  when  the  people  re- 
covered  fn.m  the  first  effects  of  the  staggering  blow,  the 
U-aders  saw  that  the  best  way  to  restore  the  national  pres- 
lige  lay  in  awakening  the  intelligence  of  people  and  in  de- 


THE   EXAMPLE  OF   DEN\LVRK 


ll.*) 


vclopinp  the  resources  of  the  hind,  rather  than  in  tnakin^; 
u  futile  attempt  to  re^'aiii  what  tliey  had  h)>{  liy  force  of 
amis.  The  tliouyhts  of  the  jK-ople  were  once  more  turned 
towards  Bishop  Grundvij,''s  i)hin.  To-tlay  the  total  enroll- 
ment in  these  schools  is  almost  ten  thousand,  antl  the  nuni- 
l>er  of  sch(K)ls  is  al)out  eighty.  Over  ten  i)er  cent  of  the  peo- 
ple i)ass  throuf,'h  them.  They  are  not  state  institutions,  hut 
are  the  result  of  j)rivate  initiative.  Some  are  owned  and 
controlled  by  hi;,'li-s<.h(M)!  societies,  others  hy  i)rivate  indi- 
viduals. They  are  insi)ected  hy  the  government,  and  wlu-n 
they  reach  a  certain  standard  they  receive  :$()()()  kroner 
($810)  annually.  There  is  a  government  fund  to  assist  stu- 
dents who  are  unahlo  to  pay  their  own  exi)en.s<'s.  The  max- 
imum assistance  so  given  is  sJo  kroner  (!?f).7.>)  i)€r  month. 
Students  j)ay  35  kroner  (•"?!>. 4.'))  j)er  month  in  winter,  and 
S^i  kroner  ($8.61)  i)er  month  in  summer,  for  board,  lodging, 
an<l  tuition.' 

These  schools  are  intended  primarily  for  the  sons  and 
<laughters  of  farmers,  and  are  always  located  in  the  coun- 
try. The  ages  of  the  students  range  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-five  years.  Mr.  A.  I'oulsen,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  movement,  says:  — 

Tliey  are  all  schools  for  grown-up  iHH)pIe.  Gnmdvig  held 
to  the  opinion,  which  experii-iuf  has  shown  to  he  right,  that 
it  is  at  tlio  age  of  eiglitc«'n  to  twtiily-five  tliat  tlie  inteliictual 
faculties  are  most  siis<-fptihU'  to  influence.  Before  that  age 
the  niiiui  is  not  siifh<ieiitly  develope*!  and  nie<litation  canntit 
be  awakerie<l.  Later  on,  in  more  advanccfi  age,  most  iniiids 
will  be  (X'cuijiwl  willi  the  pra<tical  diilies  of  life;  hiil  llio 
uge  of  strong  emotions,  feelings,  and  arduous  longings,  the 
" niurm-uiul-ilraiKj"  |)eri<Ml  nalnral  to  \outli,  is  tlie  l)esl  lime 
for  sowing  the  see<l  of  knowli-dge,  and  for  exercising  tlie  per- 
.soi»al  influence  of  tlie  teacher.    For  on  the  latter  all  depends. 

The  young  men  meet  Utr  five  months  in  the  winter,  an<l 
the  young  women  for  three  months  in  the  summer.  Of  the 
eighty  high  schools,  thirty  have  an  agi-icultural  side;  and 
'   I'uitid  Stales  I'ureau  iif  Kiliuutiiiii.   HulletiD  5.    I!)U. 


•iU 


AGIllCl  LTl  UAL  KDIC  ATION 


fh<T<'  .in>.  ill  aiMitioii.  ahoul  twenty  a^'riculluriil  scIkkiIs 
aii<l  tliirl<'<ii  fiotisckccpiiif^  scIkkjIs,  all  >iniilar  in  tlicir 
nicllnxl  i)f  orf.'aiiizali(»n  and  niana^cniont.'  The  agricul- 
tural schools  fijrcw  out  of  the  high  schools  as  a  branch  from 
tli«'  |>arcnt  stem,  and  afterwards  as  sei)aritc  institutions 
followed  similar  methods  except  that  agriculture  and  the 
related  sciences  formed  the  main  part  of  the  subject -mat- 
ter of  the  curriculum.  These  si)ecial  agricultural  and  house- 
ke<|»iMg  schools  are  generally  l(Kalc<l  in  the  neiglil)orho<Kl 
of  lh<>  ix'ojile's  high  schools,  and  in  some  cases  the  same 
teachers  lecture  in  both  classes  of  sc1km)Is.  The  courses  in 
the  two  types  of  schools  oocujiy  alK)ut  the  same  length  of 
time. 

Allowing  for  those  who  attend  an  agricultural  school  af- 
ter at  tending  a  |)eople's  higii  school,  and  those  who  attend 
twice,  about  one  [)erson  in  every  five  of  the  rural  popula- 
tion who  annually  comes  to  the  age  of  eighteen  attends  a 
high  school.  It  i.-  estimatetl  that  there  are  l.)(),(MK)  men  and 
women  who  have  attended  these  schools.  In  IflOl,  thirty 
I)er  cent  of  the  members  of  the  uj)per  and  lower  houses  of 
Parliament  hail  been  high-seliool  j»iii)ils.  '{"he  high-school 
jjujiils  exert  a  marked  influence  u|>on  the  social  and  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  people  by  the  sjiirit  t)f  comradeship  which 
is  maintained  after  their  attendance  at  the  high  school 
ceases.  Scattered  throughout  Denmark,  in  thirty  or  forty 
towns,  "High-School  Homes"  have  been  established  and 
maintained.  These  are  simple  hotels,  with  plain  living  ac- 
commodations, v.ith  rooms  for  meetings  and  social  inter- 
course, and  they  <'ontain  useful  libraries  and  other  ac<-oni- 
niodations.  When  the  si  idenls  of  the  high  .schools  visit  the 
towns,  they  make  these  homes  their  headquarters. 

The  high  schools  j)roper  concern  themselves  with  the  de- 
velopment of  i)atriotism  through  history,  literature,  .song, 
and  story;  and  even  the  schools  that  have  been  established 

'    It'pi.rt   nf   |{..y;il  Cdniiiussion  on   Industrial  Education.     Ottawa, 

Cau.-iiiii. 


THE   EX-VMPLE   OF   DENMARK 


H5 


for  the  express  purpose  of  ^'ivinj,'  afrricultural  instruction 
spend  uiucli  time  in  lliis  way.  Tlie  influence  of  tliex-  schools 
is  well  shown  hy  the  following  quotation  from  Mr.  Alfred 
I'oul.sen:  — 

Then  arose  as  if  by  magic  the  larf;e  coiipcrative  dairies 
whieli  gel  their  milk  from  large  district:*,  usually  from  a 
whole  jiarish.  .  .  .  The  (tuickiie.s>  and  pre<ision  with  wliich 
tiiis  change  was  earrie<l  out  is  due  j.artly  to  the  leiuliiig  agri- 
culturists of  our  country  ami  partly  t4>  the  high  .scIum.Is.  IJy 
their  help  a  set  of  energetic  young  men  were  brought  up  to 
understand  the  imjjortance  of  the  new  ideiis,  aud  to  se<-ure 
the  -succe.ss  of  the  new  principle  of  cix.iMTative  manufacture. 
S<»me  of  them  after  a  short  course  of  instruction  were  ahh-  U) 
undertake  the  res|)onsil)le  work  ju*  managers.  .  .  .The  greater 
part  of  the  men  and  women  who  manufiMture  this  butter 
are  pui)ils  of  the  high  .s<1iim.Is.  I  mislit.  if  lime  allow(«<l.  (lunle 
many  sayings  of  men  who  in  ditferent  branches  of  industry 
luivi"  made  themselves  prominent.  They  all  agri-e  in  thi.s, 
tlial  the  young  [K-ople  who  have  frequent«'<l  the  high  schools 
are  much  more  to  be  relic-*!  upon,  more  inilustri(jus.  than 
their  eomrailes  who  never  Imd  the  o[)p<)rtunity  of  attending 
them.  To  be  brief.  T  shall  content  mys«-lf  with  stating  a 
remark  nn-ently  maiie  at  the  congress  in  .Vntwerp  by  Mr. 
Peschke  Koedt.  tme  of  our  most  influential  menliants.  Ht; 
said.  "  The  jjopular  high  s<h(M>l  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
factors  in  the  economic  life  of  the  country." 


I 


«    » 


THE    ROY.\L    AGRirrLTlRAI-    .VND    VKTERI.NAIIY    INSTITfTE 

At  the  head  of  all  the  institutions  established  to  ^'ive 
agricultural  training,  is  the  Royal  Agrirultural  and  Veter- 
inary Institute  at  Copenhagen.  This  is  the  sujjreme  teacli- 
ing  body.  It  trains  veterinary  surgeons,  teachers  of  agri- 
cultural science,  agricultural  ex])erts,  land  stewards,  and 
the  sons  of  the  larger  farmers  who  desire  to  add  to  their 
knowledge  of  })ractical  farming  a  complete  course  of  train- 
ing in  the  sciences  relating  to  it.  In  ll)l'-2.  the  Institute  %vas 
attended  by  three  hundred  students.  The  course  of  study 
extends  over  two  years,  but  a  sujjplementary  third-year 
cour.se  is  given.   No  courses  shorter  than  two  years  are 


S46  AGRICILTURAL  EDCCATION 

nrranRed.  The  foiirst^  for  votcrinary  students  extends  over 
four  years,  and  soinc'liincs  ov<t  five  years,  and  the  full 
course  is  »al<en  l.y  all  students.  No  farm  is  attached  t(.  this 
college,  nor  is  any  at  Icinpt  made  to  train  the  student  in  any 
branch  of  practical  farming.  The  staff  includes  twenty- 
two  professors  and  lecturers,  besides  twelve  assistants 
.•-nd  tutors.  Attached  to  the  collej;e  are  lar^e  research 
lal)oratori<-s.  which  receive  an  annual  subsidy  from  the 
state  in  a.idition  to  the  annual  grant  of  $7(),(>40  given  to 
the  college. 

niRAL  ORGANIZATION    IN    DENMARK 

It  now  remains  to  consider  briefly  what  may  be  con- 
sidered the  chief  factor  in  Danish  a^'ricultural  F)rogress  — 
the  organization.  The  corner-stone  is  the  Danish  Agricul- 
tural Societv,  established  in  17(;!).  The  government  looks 
uiM.n  this  society  almost  as  its  ofHcial  a<lviser,  and  has  dele- 
gated the  administration  of  many  measures  to  it.  Amongst 
these  are  the  services  of  consulting  experts  in  the  several 
divisions  of  agriculture.  su]>plementary  training  of  cream- 
ery butter-makers,  official  tests  of  agricultural  machines 
ami  implements,  and  various  lines  of  field  experiments 
which  are  placed  under  the  immediate  supervision  of 
specialists  app..inted  by  the  society  for  the  pun)ose. 

The  State  Department  of  Agriculture  (hx-s  not  directly 
employ  agricultural  experts  (as  in  France.  England.  Nor- 
way and  Sweden),  nor  any  specially  qualified  agricultural 
coum-il  (as  in  Prussia  ami  Ik-lgium),  but  uses  as  its  ad- 
visers the  Royal  Danish  Agricultural  S<K-iety,  the  Central 
Cooperative  Association,  the  Veterinary  Board  of  Health, 
aii.l  oth.-r  bodies.  The  president  an.l  one  half  of  the  thirty- 
six  directors  of  the  Danish  Agricultural  Society  are  elected 
by  the  members  of  the  society,  the  other  half  being  chosen 
by  the  farmers'  associations,  one  member  for  each  county. 
In  this  wav.  everv  section  of  the  country  has  an  oi)por- 
tunity  to  hell)  direct  the  policy  of  the  society,  which  thus 


TIIE   EX^VMrLE  OF   DEN^LVUK 


*47 


becomes  the  nationni  representative  of  Danisli  a>n"ieiilture. 
The  metnhership  is  Ijctween  seven  and  ei^'lit  hundred,  and 
the  annual  fee  is  twenty  kroner. 

After  the  intrtxhiclion  of  the  a«ricultural  n'fornis  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eightei'nth  eentury,  certain  orKani/.ati()n3 
were  estahlislied  "for  the  promotion  of  morality  and  ability 
atnoHK'  the  rural  jKipiilation."   These  have  develojMHl  into 
what  arc  known  as  "farmers  asMK-iations,  '  through  which 
elfeet  is  given  to  the  general  development  |K>liey.  The  first 
l(Mal association  wasestal)lishe<i  in  ISO...  These ass<Kiations 
grew  to  twenty-five  in  number  in  1850,  forty  in  IHOO.  while 
at  the  present  time  there  are  one  hundred  and  sixteen,  with 
a   meml)ershii)  of  more  than   8(5,000.  paying  in  annual 
fees  al)ove  '•21)1,000  kroner  (.$5i,'-270).'    In  order  to  prevent 
dui)lication  of  effort  and  tt)  enable  them  to  undertake  larger 
work  than  could  be  handled  by  the  limited  means  of  the 
local  associations,  they  have  formed  themselves  into  five 
provincial  ass(K-iations.   Many  of  the  problems  considered 
iHMng  common  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  five  provin- 
cial organizations  organized  in  18ir3  a  national  executive 
body  of  thirtiH^n  meml)ers. 

In  1901.  "small-holders'  associations"  were  organized 
to  deal  with  the  problems  of  the  very  small  farmer.  These 
agriin.  like  the  farmers'  associations,  formed  fi\  provincial 
associations  in  190^;  and  in  1903  a  national  executive  lK)dy 
of  eleven  meml)ers  was  established.  There  is  now  a  total  of 
7^23  local  asstxiations  with  :W.9.>0  iaeml)ers;  and  adding  the 
IIG  farmers'  associations  with  80,000  members,  there  are 
839  associations  with  124.950  members. 

In  addition  to  these  bo«lies.  a  large  numlxT  of  sj)ecial 
organizations  have  develoi)ed  out  of  the  farmers'  as.socia- 
tions.  for  the  purpose  of  solving  .si)ecial  problems.  There 
are  now  about  ■270  horse-breeding,  l'2«iO  cattle-brmling. 
•i.y.i  swine-breeding,  and  10'2  sheej)-bree<Jing  asscK-iations. 
most  of  which  have  formed  provincial  as  well  as  IcK-al 
»  Iloyul  Comiuiisiou  on  Industrial  and  Ttxlmical  Education.  OtUwa. 


818  AGUin-LTlUAL  EDICATION 

asMKiations.   TlK-rr  an-  als..  ,,..ultry-kcH-|,inu' asMKialinn.s, 
btf-kci-pinj:  a>>..«  ialion..  dairy-murds  u:i*<..  lation.s.  and  a 

milIll)CT  of  (jUuts.  . 

'll.r  aK'ricMiUiiral  credifs  aH.siMiati(,ns  wi-rc  fnrmcd  in 
18i)S,  Willi  llie  ol.ji'cl  of  advaiuiii^  Uinporary  leans  for 
curn-nl  working;  .<x,M-nM-s.  rnd.-r  tlu-sc  asMM-.alw.ns.  tl.c 
inaxinnin.  l..an  is  :{()(K)  kroner  Oi^SlO),  tl.r  inax.nu.ni  lnn«- 
fur  wl.i(  1.  a  loan  is  >:rantc<l  is  nin.-  nionlhs  in  a  year,  and  the 
inaxinuun  rate  of  interest  is  three  and  one  half  per  eent^ 
The  state  has  placed  r,,(Um,(t(l()  kroner  at  the  disp..sal  of 
these  asscK-iations.  ,.f  which  there  are  at  present  16S.' 

There  are  manv  <<her  societies  an<l  organizations  whitli 
rannol  now  Ik-  dealt  with,  l.ut  enou^^h  has  l.een  said  to  show 
that  the  Danes  rely  in  lar-e  measure  ui.on  ornani/ation 
and  coo,>erative  activity  for  tlu'  d.-velopn.cnt  ..f  their  a^ri- 
cullurc;  and  it  is  pre<-isely  in  this  dire.  tion.  ,.rol.al.ly  more 
than  in  .lefmite  agri.ultural  instruction,  that  the  North 
American  farmer  lacks. 

What  may  he  considered  as  the  es.sentials  of  agncultiirai 

proj;ress  are  here  shown  to  he: 

1    Highly  trained  enten)rise  and  resourcefulness. 

2.  The  power  that  comes  to  farmers  through  organiza- 
tion. .        , 

3.  The  efTectivcncss  with  which  the  povernnienl  is  al)lo, 
chiefly  thr.  .<gh  these  organizations,  to  aid  the  indi- 
vidual farmer  with  expert  advice,  technical  instruc- 
tion, and  material  support. 

.  Royal  Commiision  oq  iDdustrial  and  Ttxhukal  Education.    OlU«a. 


TUB    END 


i 


APPKXDIX 


APPFADIX 


1 1 


LIST  OF  AITMORITIES  CONSlI.TF.n 

/.   ItiHiIci  riLttIng  tn  tfw  .Tuhjrrt  grneralht 

Baii.f.v.   I..  11.     The  UuUuok  to  Sature.    Mmniillaii  Company. 
New  York,  iHiTt. 

A  *Tifs  <>(  four  li-<-tiir»-i  >m  "'I'Ih-  Knilm  of  thr  <'iiiniiiiin|iliM-<'"; 
"<"oiintry  an'l  <  ity";  "Tin-  S«  li-iol  of  tin-  Fulurf";  "  E- ululion: 
the  (iu.  St  of  TruMi." 
Tfw  Training  of  Farmers.    r«'ntiiry  Conipany.  Now  York. 

$1. 

n.'aU  with  the  n-av)n»  for  boys  and  tfirls  l.ii\ inn  '"•  staying  on 
th«-  fiiriii;  oilK'Ki-s  n{  iiKTiiiiltiirc;  fnll.-^;.'  mm  iw  fanu  nianajjcrs; 
llif  oilIcK''"  of  auriiMiltiiri-  anil  ttu-  State. 

Ci/rLfpedia  of  Annrlran  Agriculture.  Matinillan  Company, 

New  York,     i  vols.     $-»0. 

Particularly  voliimi-  *.  Thr  Farm  nml  the  Cnmmunitij.  A  stand- 
ard  work  dcalinK  with  all  |)li.i.s.'s  of  the  .sulijc<  t. 

BrrTH,  (1.  11.    AVw  Idinh  in  Rural  SrItooLi.    Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  Boston.     $().(!(>. 

Contains  ohapti-rs  on  "  Thi-  Unml  <th»»\   and  it<-  ProM.-ms"; 
"NK-ial  Organization  of  the  llural  NhiK.l".  "  Curriculiini  of  the 
Rural  SthiMil"';  "The  Ti-achcr  of  the  llural  School." 
BiTTTKiiFiEi.i).  K.  L.    CltapU-rx  in  Rural  Progress.    University  of 
Chicago  Prcs-s,  Chicago.     <(1. 

At  analysis  of  rural  srx-ial  oonflilions  an<l  progress. 
Carlton,  F.  J.    Kihu-aiion  and  tfu-  InduMrial  Evolution.    Mac- 
millan  Company,  New  York.     $\.-L't. 

The  chapters  include:  "Kducational  F-iKK-hs  in  the  I'nited 
States";  "Uelation  Iwlwei-n  K<lucati.inal  Advancement  and  In- 
dustrial Progress";  "New  .\ims.  Ideals,  and  MethiKls  ';  "Women 
and  Indu.stry";  "Agricultural  K.lucation";  ".New  KducationiJ 
I'rojeiU";  "The  S<  h(X)l  of  the  Kuttm-." 
C.^itNFY,  M.\HFX.  Country  Life  and  the  Country  School.  Row. 
Peterson  ^  Company.  Chicago,     i^l.'i.j. 

.V  comprehensive  stu'ly.  with  many  practical  iletails,  of  the 
agencies  for  rural  progn-ss,  and  the  ^x-ial  relationship  of  the  s<h(Hi| 
to  the  ctjuntry  community.     Contains  an  extensive  bibliography. 


2.V2 


APPENDIX 


f'MivKH,  T.  \.  Prinri plc.1  of  Rural  F.ronnmirs.  Ginn  &  Cdnipany, 
Boston.   !«!!..'!(». 

Urals  iutiTcstinL'Iy  with  tin-  causi-s  rif  thi-  movornPnt  of  the  rural 
[xipiilatii'ii  towarii  tlir  city,  aii<l  tlir  jwissiliilitics  (if  tlii'  farm  ami 
niiintry  of  llic  future.  trrati-'<i  mainly  from  an  t-conouiir  jniint  of 
view. 

CfnnEBLEV.  E.  P.  Rural  Life  and  Education.    Iloughlon  Mifflin 
Company,  Boston.   $1.jO. 

A  c-omprchtnsivf  stuily  of  riiral  life  ami  the  rural  scIkmiI,  an<l 
their  relation  to.  and  (leix'inleiiee  u[xin.  eaili  oilier. 

— Tfif   Imprrnrmcnt  oj   Rural  Schools.     Iloujjliton    Mifflin 

Coni[jaii\'.  Boston.  $0.3j. 

Treats  the  prohleni  under  the  following;  headings;  "Ttie  I'nil)- 
lem";  "More  Money";  "  IJetter  Or^'anization  ";  "Hettir  ."suixt- 
vision  " 

Daveni'oht.  E.    I-lt!uratlon  for  Effirienrij.    D.  C.  Ilwith  &  Com- 
I)aiiy,  Boston.  $1. 

Includes  chapters  on  "The  (  iiltun'  Aim  in  F,ducalion  ':  "Airri- 
eullure  in  the  lli^h.  Normal,  and  S|x-cial  nIicmiIs";  "The  l)e\clo(>- 
ment  of  American  A>;ricullure:  What  It  Li  and  Wh.it  It  Means.  ' 

Df.XTEH,   E.   G.    Ili-'ftori/  of    Education    in    the    Unittd    States, 
Macniilian  Coinpany.  New  ^<l^k.    i*-2.(M). 

Outlines  the  f,'ro\vth  of  tin-  peoples  schools  in  each  stale,  ileal? 
with  higher  and  siwsial  iilucalioti.  educ.itional  extension,  technical 
and  iijrricultural  education,  anil  pn-par.ition  of  teachers. 

Fi.sKE.  G.  W.    The  Challenge  of  the  Country.    Association  Press, 
New  York.   $0.7,5. 

.\  l)iK)k  on  the  rural  pniblem  in  seneral,  and  the  country  church 
in  particular. 

For.iiT,  II.  W.    The  .imirican  Rural  School.    Macniilian  Com- 
pany, New  York,  ^l.'ij. 

Deal.s  with  orciinization,  administration,  maintenance,  super- 
vision, .salaries,  huildings,  naturi'-study,  sch(X)l  gardens,  agricul- 
tural cluhs,  consolidation,  etc. 

n.vG(J.\Kn,  R.  Rural  Denmark  and  its  Lessons.  L<jngman.s,  Green 
&  Company,  New  York,  .^si.'ij. 

Descrilx's  the  rural  regeneration  hrouf^ht  alwiut  l>y  agrici  Itural 
education  and  orj^anization  anions  farmers. 

Ki'.iiv,  O.  J.  .Among  Country  SchiMth.    Ginn  &  Comj)any,  Boston, 
JiSl.'i,5. 

Tre:its  of  thecountry  .schiiil.aiid  the  melliods  of  vitalizing  itscur- 
riculuni  and  changing  its  outlook  so  tts  tu  relate  it  to  country  life. 


AITENDIX 


•2J3 


Lrvkk.  Alheut  II.    TmliiMrlal  Eilurn!i<m  :  Itx  Mdfuxl.i,  I'rohb-m.i, 
and  Oaiigrm.   Ili.ugliloii  MitHin  Company.  Boston.   l!(l.-.'.j. 

Dr:il>  lark"'ly  with  lli"  .1.  iii.ntary  .sihixils.  iiiid  lli.ir  rcvitali/^i- 
I'mn  alon^!  V(K-atiu.uil  lims. 
Le-vvitt,  F.  M.  ExampUn  nj  Industrial  Education.  Ginn  &  Com- 
pany, B«xston.  $l.'io. 

ChiipUT  18.  "('c)nc<Tnin«  .\K'ri<ultiiral  KilucitKin." 

M.<rD()rG.\iJ..  J.  Rural  Life  in  Caruula.  WV.stminsU-r  Puhli.sliiiig 
Company,  Toronto.  $1. 

Di.viiaxs  th«-  ilcplctiuti  i.f  till-  rural  i)<>[)iilatinn  ami  its  .Mi.iK.iiiic 
raiii<'s,  and  proposfs  .v.luli.iu.s.  The  c-ouulry  .liurdi  w  iltall  with 
in  clrtail. 

M(  Keevku.  W.  A.    Farm  lioi/.^  amt  CirU.   Macmillau  Company, 
New  ^'ork.   $1.jO. 

I).-alswil!llli>-»tiiil''  l>n.M,-ni(.f  r..iinlr\  lif.- as  it  atl.^  t,  tin- In.y 
ami  the  Kirl.    IaIciisis.   r.f.T.iic.-s  at  lli-'  <'ti<l  ..f  ••ach  nf  th.-  t\%fiit  y 
chapters. 
MoRMAN,  J.  B.    Prinriph-s  of  Rural  CridiLi.    Mattuillan  Com- 
pany, New  York.   $1.50. 

Exi  ;  ins  till'  nn'thiHls  c,f  financing  farni-Ts  in  r.iirnp.'an  coun- 
tries. u.kI  otr.rs  suni.'c>ti<>ns  for  their  a.laplalii>n  l.i  the  I  niteil 
States  i.ii.l  Canada.  The  lHK)k  is  l)H>e<l  ..n  the  Report  of  th.-  I  nited 
States  ( 'oinnii.s>inn  on  Rural  Cnilits. 

rn-NKETT,  Sin  II.     Thr  Ihirtd  I.lff  I'rohli-m  in  thr  VniUd   States. 
Macmillan  Coinpatiy,  New  ^ork.   i?l. -.;,). 

The  ol)Ner\atioiis  of  a  well-known  Irish  afrieiiltural  ref..rnier  on 
thepn.hU-nis  that  <onfr..nl  the  .\m.riean  farmer.  «ith  suKt'istions 
(or  their  solntiiiii 

2.  Publicationn  of  thf  I'nital  StaUs  liiinau  of  Education 
Any  of  thr  following  puhlirations  can  h<-  ohtaiiKni  free  from  the 
T'nit.Hl  Slates  Commissioner  of  F<<ln(atioii.  or  at  a  small   charge 
frr)m  the  Siiix-rintendenl  of  l)(M'iiments.  Washington,  D.C.:  — 
Country  Life  Commission.   Riixirt. 

The  Report  of  President  Roosevelt's  rommi.s.sion  on  Country 
Life,  oulliiiine  the  country -life  prol.l.rn  and  -^uKKesting  reme<iieit. 

C<,mmissioner  of  Education.    Annual  It»'ports.  particularly  — 
1901.  Chapter  13.  "Education  in  the  S<iuth."' 
1903.  Chapter    8.  "The     Educational     Movement     in     the 
South." 


'^jl 


APrENDIX 


190J.  Chapter    5.  "Tlic    Tea(  liinp    of    AKri'ultnr.-    in    the 

SliiM'U  of  Frarici'  ami  IJilf^iiiui." 
I!t(»7.  ('ha[)t<T    7.  "Eiliicalioii  in  Canada."" 
lUO'J.  CliapltT  11.  "AKrioiltural  Kcliicaliou."' 
13.  "Horm-  Kcuiioiiiics."" 

1910.  Chapter     i.   'W^riciillural  Kdiicalion." 

1911.  Chapter    1.  "Eilmatioiial  l'rogrc.s.s  from  1900  to  1910." 

9.  ".V^^riciiltiiral  Kdiicatioii."" 
10.  "Kiiral  IVIi'l  in  Foffigii  Countrit-s." 
1 9 H.  Chapter    .j.  "  Rural  EdiKalion." 

9.  "A  Ucvifw  of  Agricullural  Education  in 
1911-li." 
1913.  Chapter    8.  "Rural  Education." 

9.  "  rnigrt-ss  of   Agricultural    Education  in 
191i   13." 


Bulletins 
1907.  No. 


2.  .ijriritltuml  FJncatinn,  i  ■  liiding  Suture  Study 
and  SrIuMil  (Uirditix. 
Deals  al>i)  with  tlie  agricultural  cullcf?-.  and  the  prael:  ai  iidvan- 
ta^'cs  (if  iii'^tnictiiiii  in  aj,'riculture.    ('(iritains  a  kikmI  liililici^rrapliy. 
190S.   No.     1.    The  Tminin'j  iif  I'rr.ioiui  t,)  Tcurh  A(jriruUure  in 
tlw  Public  SrhooU. 
I)iscii>scs  tin'  nature  of  llic  pr.ilplein  in  cnnneclioii  with  elemen- 
tary. scioniLiry.  and  ^i»-<Mal  ^cIumiU.  Methods  of  training  teas  hers 
in  service  us  well  its  new  teachers  are  ci)nsideri-<l. 

1914.  No.    1.  A  Coiir.ie  i>f  Stmhf  for  Uw  Prcparaiion  of  Rural 

School  Tcarh-ra. 
"ireiit.s  of  the  need  for  sjx'cial  traulin^,^  and  outlines  preparatory 
ar.d  elementury  eoursi-s  in  nature-study,  a^ncullure,  sanitary  sci- 
ence, and  practical  cheniistry  applied  to  rural  life. 

No.    0.  Agricultural  ^duration  in  Secondary  Schools. 
TaiHTS  read  at  the  se<i>nd  annual  nie<-lins;  of  the  American  .\s,sf>- 
ciation  for  the  .\dvanceiiieiit  of  Virricultriral  TeachinR. 

No.  10.   liihlioiimphi;  if  Education   in   Ajriciilturc  and 

Home  luiiiiomic.i. 
.\n  extensive  cliussihi  d  li>t  dealing  with  all  phases  of  instruction 
in  l)oth  sul)je<'tr. 

No.  18.    Teaching    huujnaiie    through    Agriculture     and 

Domf><tic  Science. 
\  su^liiesteil  scIk  ine  for  llw  rorrelation  of  apriculture  and  dom-s- 
tic  science  with  the  ulber  rulijivls  of  the  rural  sihooi  curriculum. 


.VTPENDIX 


'2)5 


No.  20.  Tlie  R'-adju.ttmfTd  of  a  Rural  High  Scfu)ol  U)  the 

Seeds  of  tfw  Community. 
Shows  how  ('.>lel)rcK)k  Aiadcniy,  which  wius  ii  typi(  al  ii.untry 
hi^h  schitol,  hiks  iKtn  ri-orkMiiizcd  so  as  t"  lucct  the  nit^Ls  <if  the 
i-oniiu  unity. 
1913.  No.    i.   Training  Cour/irs  for  Rural  Teachers. 

(iivcs  ;i  .letiiile<l  account  of  the  nu-thods  uiloi>tc(l  in  the  Initccl 
States  for  training  rural  schiM>l-tcuchcrs.  with  suummrics  of  tlie 
courses  and  statistics  of  the  s(  h(H)ls. 

No.    C.  Agricultural  InxtruHion  in  High  Schools. 

Contaias  a  hrief  liistorical  sketch,  and  deals  with  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  secondary  ntrricullural  instruction.  -  salaries  of  teachers, 
relation  of  agriculture  to  tlie  general  scIkh.I  program,  difiicuilies  of 
instruction,  etc.    Three  typical  schools  are  descriU'd. 

No.    8.  The  S*<itus  of  Rural   Education  in  the   United 

Sta*c-. 
Compares   ui     .n   and    niral   .schools,    and   discusses   the  onc- 
tejwher  school,  the  lack  of  essentials  for  efhciency,  the  status  of  the 
teaching  force,  training  courses,  tlie  supervision,  organization,  and 
management  of  rural  seh(«)ls. 

No.  1-1.  Agricultural  Education  in  Secondary  Schools. 
Papers  re.id  at  the  third  annual  meeting  of  the  American  .Vsso- 
ciation  for  the  Advancement  of  .\gricultural  Teaching. 

No.  20.  Illiteracy  in  the  United  States  and  an  Experiment 

for  its  Elimination. 
Describes  the  organization,  management,  and  influence  of  the 
"moonlight"  .schools  of  Rowan  County,  Kentucky. 

No.  23.  The  Georgia  Club  at  the  State  Sormal  School, 
Atherui,  Georgia,  for  the  Study  of  Rural  Sociology. 

Gives  an  account  of  the  activities  of  a  club  formed  for  the  study 
of  the  social,  economic,  and  educational  conditions  existing  in  the 
different  ct)untie8  of  the  state. 

No.  30.  Education  in  the  South. 

PajK-rs  read  at  the  Si\te<'nth  Conference  for  FMucalion  in  the 
South,  hchl  at  Richmond.  Virginia,  April.  !'.)1:«. 

No.  32.  -In  Educational  Surrey  of  a  Suhurhan  and  Rural 
County. 

An  investigation  into  the  conditions  existing  in  Montgomery 
County,  Maryland,  hy  the  Department  of  Church  and  <  ounlry 
Life  of  the  Board  of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presl  ytcrian  Church. 


2J0  AIM'KXDIX 

X...  a.  in  I'.jjHrinurtUd  Rural  Sclu»,l  at  U'iiitlin,,, 
(  ulUgc.  ' 

A  prucliciil  il<-,cri(.ti..n  uf  an  .-xiMrim.nt  to  .li.s(f>v.T  a  m.tlKxI 
whicli  «,, 1,1.1  .iial,!.-  til,-  t.ach.r  „f  tlu-  ..no-r....tn  mIi.h.I  t,,  ,uakc> 
bt-r  sfh(«j|  u  fuilor  in  the  .l.v.liipm.Tit  ..f  Ibc  life  arf.uti.l  it. 

No.  49.  Tfu'  i'nrragul  Sclujol :  A  Tmmssie  Country  Life 
High  Scliutd. 

DrscriU-.s  thp  .s.'!!.)..!,  wlii<l,  is  .sitiiat.-.!  n.-ar  the  villaR.-  of  r.,n- 
cor.1.  Knox  County.  Contain.s  a  list  of  ihr  .-quiprm-nl  for  t^ching 
agriculture,  fiiriR-nlry,  si'winK.  and  (■(K>kinK. 

No,  58.  The  Educational  S,,dcm  of  Rural  Denmark. 

I).-als  witl.  th-  history  of  rural  .i.vviopm.nt  in  Denmark.  an.I 
R.V...S  a  .Ivtai l.;.!  a.,-ount  of  ihr  srho.,!  sy.stem.  with  8<,ine  applica- 
lion.s  to  the  (  iutr.1  States.      Hil.lioKraphy. 

1914.  No.    5.   T/u-  Folk-  High  Srfumh  of  Denmark. 

<iivesanareouul  of  ll riK'in.  or,raiii/.atioM.  work,  an.!  influ- 
ent- of  th.-  «'h.H,l,.  with  suKge.slion.,  a.s  to  ,«..s.,il,le  applications  in 
.vnierjca. 

No.    8.   Thf  Manxwhu.s-ith  Home- Project  Plan  of  .igri- 

cultiiral  Education. 
("ontain.s  .hapl.rs   on  v.Katioual  ayri.ult wr.il   .Mliicalion.  agri- 
cultural  project  stu.ly.  proj.-ef  .study  outline  for  vegetat.le   grow- 
ing, am)  a  gixMl  hihliogr.iphy. 

No.  I'i.   Rural  Schoolliou.tcn  and  GroUTuis. 
Deiils  with  health  coMililioiis  au.l  op|M,rtiinities  in  rural  life,  and 
otTer-*  many  pl.ins  au.l  >ugg,>ti.iiis  for  .-ouutry  .sch<Hjlh..use!i. ' 

No.  ',>J.   The  Danish  Folic  High  Schools. 

A  .^.mprehensive  treatment.  coUMsting  <if  ten  chapters. 

No.  '24.  Danish  Elementary  Rural  ScluxAs. 

IVals  with  (he  organization,  n.lministrafion.  and  management 
of  th<-  srh<Kils.  sohor)l  architeeture,  ,«;ilaries,  [x-nsions,  etc..  an<i  the 
applicati.)n  of  Danish  m.-th.Mis  to  the  ,sch.K)ls  of  the  Tnitcl  .States. 

No.  •i5.  Important   Features  in   Rural  School  Improre- 
ment. 

A  (vimpilation  from  sp«-cial  reports  of  rural  school  superintend- 
ents to  fh.-  Huri'au  of  K.lucation. 

No.  «r.  Agricultural  Teaching. 

PaiHTs  presentefl  at  the  fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  American 
Aisoeiation  for  th.  Advancement  r.f  Agricultural  Teaching. 


AIM'KNDIX 


^.-.7 


Ni).  .'{().  ('<irh*i)liilati'>"  "f  Srh(n>l.*.  and  Trdtispoiintinn  oj 
Piipil.i  (U  I'lihlii-  Hrjxri.if. 

OulliiH's  th>'  lii>tnry  ami  cxtiiit  I'f  lli--  rimvonirnt,  >lali'  li  i;i>l.»- 
ti'iii.  cost  (if  t'iin-.f)iirtiiti<in,  f(lu(uti()ii:il  ailvjiiitiik''.'*.  itu'l  "li-scriln-s 
siiinr  lypiiNil  •.iliiHil>, 

Nos.  ;{(»-;}!).   FAluriUi'iii  for  thf  Home. 

Thiscfiiiir  Imllrtins  >;ivca  (i.inpn  h.tiMv.-iimmnt  of  llir  orK'nni- 
zation  i)f  lious<-h<)l(l  *u-ucf  instru;  timi  in  dilfi  rent  l\  (ws  c.f  s.  Ikm.Is. 

No.  49.  Ejfflrienc!/    and    Prriiaratiim   of    Rural    ScIuhjI 

Tcarhrrs. 

D.iiIh  with  tlif  I'fficii'iK  y  of  ttu-  ttach.T.s  now  in  tlic  sthixil.t.  out- 
lini-s  s<)in-'  of  the  tliiniis  nc.'.li.l  to  pn.f.s.-ioniilizf  rural  ti-aching, 
and  di'sorilH's  what  is  Ix'in'-  doin-  'or  rural  tcaihi-r  pn'fiaration. 

Monographs  on  Eilnration  in  tin-  I'niti'd  Stales.   No.  H.  Ajririd- 

tural  Education.   Pnhlishcd  for  Un-  St.  l.^tui-s  ExjMisition,  UHH. 

Di-.il-i  with  tin-  history  of  at'riiullural  siM'irtifs  and  fairs,  the 

Initid  Stati's  Di-p.irtnviit  of  Akrricullurf,  th>-  land-irranf  <-oli.-«<'s, 

coursfs  of  study,  extension  work,  and  a^'ricultup'  in  tin-  loniniou 


3.  ,  ..Uwations  oj  the  I'nitrd  Xtatr.i  Drpartninit  of  .\(iriculture 

To  !)«•  ohtaincil  fr<'<'  from  tlic  S<-<Ti"tiiry  of  .V^jricuiturc.  or.  at  a 
small  charge  from  tlie  SujHTinlendent  of  DcH-iirnenl-s.  Washing- 
ton, !).('. 
As.s<H-iution  of  .\.meriean  .V^rieultnral  Colleges  and  Experiment 

Stations. 
American  .V.s.scx'iation  of  Farmers'  Institute  Workers. 

The  prooiMMlintts  it  thf  annual  nu-f'tings  of  these  a.s.so<-iat  ions  are 
pul)lishi'il  a-s  huUetins,  containiiiK  a<ldres.'«'S  deliven-*!  and  the  dis- 
cussions ihertHin. 

Bulletin  IfiS.  AgrimUural     InMnwtion   for    Adults    in    Foreign 
Countries. 

Describes  the  provi.sion  made  for  inslruilion  in  eleven  Kuroi)ean 
countries. 

Bulletin  iiQ.  Secondary  Agricultural  Education  in  .ilahama. 

Descriljcs  in  detail  the  wi.rk  of  the  congressional  district  agri- 
cultural s<-h(Kils. 

Bulletin  '231.  College  Extension  in  Agriculture. 

Discussions  In'fore  the  jrraduate  s<-h(jol  of  aK'riculture  at  the 
Iowa  .\gricultural  CoIKkc,  .July.  I'JIO. 


■2.iS 


AIMT.NDIX 


Bull.-lin  -i.S-,'.  Cm^nVuhiti-tl  Rural  Srhix>h  (v»!  tlif  Orjiru'yttinn  of  a 
Ciiitutij  Sijxtrm. 

A  very  .(impnliirisiv.-  In:itmc>nt  of  t'     siil)ji-<t. 

IJnllrt in  -i  \i.   (  nunln  Sclnmh  «J  A'jririilliirf  ami  IhmfMir  ilnmnm:/ 
ill  U'l.icorisiii. 

Tn-.iN  'if  till-  (iri:^iti  i.f  tti.--  -Ii'"'!-.  ..utlln.-^  tlnir  work,  ami  .lij*- 
ciissrs  111.-  Wiiyt  in  wliirh  lli.y  can  !i.  i|i  tlif  fanu'T. 

FiiriMi  is'  Biilli'lins 

No.    !».».  (IoikI  lUiaihJar  Farmrrn. 

A.lvaiilaK'>  "f  i"       I  rn,i(U,  f)riii<il)l'S  wliich  should  Ko\,Tn  lot-a- 
tion  and  Ircatimiil.  '  !<•. 
\o.  10!).  Fanm-r.t'  ILailiiuj  ('iiiir.ir.i. 

Dials  wilii  tliiir  ori:;in,  iiiir|io.s<>,  and  dcvclopnvnt  in  several 
stales. 

No.  '218.    Tlu-  Sriuxil  danlrii. 

Treats  of  til.'   \.du.-  of  mIhx.I   ^aniens,   the  in.lividiial   seh.H.l 
>;ar.len,  lali.iratory  1  \i  rriv.,  win.liw   Imixc^.  d.  coratiou  of  M'ho-'l 
f:roiinds. 
N(J.  ^H.').   liiii/.i'  awl  dirh'  Aijrirultural  dnha. 

DeseriU-s  the  work  of  th.'  ehil)S.  and  the  a^^i-tanee  jriven  hy  the 
Deimrtment  of  A^'ri.nllure;  sut-'k'est-  a  tyiM- ..f  or>.Mni/.ation.  and 
ri'ioinnii'nds  lxH>ks  of  rifi'r.nee. 
No.  \11.  Dimnn.itratiori  ll'iirl:  dii  Southern  Farnm. 

I'laii  of  orfr.inization.  sroi«-  of  the  demonstrations,  melhiKis  and 
practical  results  acconipli>hcd. 

Cimilars 

No.    'it.   The  Man  ]Vho  ll'orh  irith  his  Hands. 

\n  a.ldress  of  e\-Presiil.nt    Roosevelt   at   the  srmi-rrnt.nnial 
r'lel)ration  of  the  founding  of  agricultural  colleges  in  the  Luited 

States. 

No.    1!>.  Sceonilari/  Cour.'^e.i  in  AgricuUurr. 

K.'p.il  of  a  cuuiMitti-.-  i>f  till-  .\ssociation  of  AmiTioan  .\L'rieuI- 
tural  t'oll..|.;cs  and  Kxp.-riniint  Stations,  on  methoils  of  teaching 
aL'ri.'ullnr.v 
No.    ()(►.   Thr   Trarhinfj  of   Agriculture  in  tlw  Rural  Common 

Srhix'l. 
No.     7;{.  (  nil ntri)  Life  F.iluration. 

\n  a.ldr.>s  liy  W.  M.  lla\s  before  ihe  Pennsylvania  State  Board 
i)f  .\i;ri'ji.ilture 


AIM'KN'DIX 


2.-.9 


N'i>.     Vii.   Fiirm  «J  Orijttn'i-.'itinn  for  Morahlr  Srhimh  "/  Ayririil- 
tiirr. 

Di'sir.iliillty  .f  -.ik  h  xIumjU,  fnrm-t  <if  cir>,Miilz,ition,  iiiiiiN4-!i, 
•■(|\ii|)riiitit.  iintliMiis,  aii'i  n'Milt-.. 

No.    8J.  Farmer/  I-ixtitutrK for  li'onu-ri. 

Nf<-<1  iif  fxtrrii'ril  kriowli'il^'i'.  relation  of  Wdiiicn  ti>  ninil  i<liix.K. 
fiirin  'if  organization  ami  coiiittitution,  kind  of  instruction  n<-<-<li-<l. 

No.    JM).  yiitrmal  Srluxil  IruHriirtion  in  Agriculture. 

l'l;ice  of  ap-iniltun-  in  thf  ciirriculuni.  cmrsos,  and  c<irrcliition. 

No.    91.  Sernndarij  Education   in    Agrindture   in   the    United 

SlaU's. 

\  rt'ixirt  of  the  Association  of  American  ARricultural  Collijfcs 
and  Kxpcrimcnt  Stations. 

No.    98.  Progress  in  Agricultural  Extension. 

Orfianization  of  tlii'  work  of  tlic  {•olji-grs  and  f.irmcrs'  institutes; 
extension  orj;iini/ation  in  various  stales;  a  partial  solution  of  the 
extension  problem. 

No.    99.  Farmers'  Institutes  for  Voung  People. 

Di'.iis  with  different  forms  of  tlie  work,  methods  of  organization, 
and  directions  for  contests  of  variou.s  kincLs. 

No.  100.    The  .imeriran  Si/Hi'm  of  Agricultural  Education. 

Commences  with  the  departnieiits  for  res<'arch  and  graduate 
study,  and  concludes  with  tlie  elementary  .school. 

No.  \\i.   The  Transj»)rtation  Companiea  a»  Factors  in  Agricul- 
tural Extension. 

Mainly  a  de.scription  of  demunatration  trains  and  their  method 
of  operation. 

4-   Publications  of  State  Unirersities.  Departments  of  Education, 
and  Departments  of  .Agriculture 

Alahaiua.   Dcparlnient  of  Ediicalioti.  MoiitgoimTv. 

Bullclin  Xo.  ;{;{.  Alabama's  Country  Seh/Hits  and  their  Relations 
to  Country  Life. 

("lives  a  detiiiled  description  of  eonditi<ms.  and  suggests  remedial 
measures. 

Bulletin  Xo.  43.  An  Educational  .S'wnvy  of   Three  Counties  in 
Alaljama. 

.\  valuable  pamphlet  dealing  with  population,  literacy,  farming, 
economic  conditions,  ailministration,  teachers,  buildings,  gnjunds, 
etiuipmcnt,  and  vitalizing  ai,'encie.s. 


im 


AITENDIX 


Arkiirisas.   I)c[)artnirnt  of  K'liiralinii,  Little  Rot-k. 
T/ic  Jiijuii  niilnin  nj  tlw  Rural  Cinnmunitu. 

All  iicMr.,^  I,)  (lir  Si.iir  Sii|M  rililiii.li  111  nf  I'lililic  Instruction. 

( 'ip|i>raili>.  riiliira'lo  .\j,'rii  ultiiral  ( 'nllc^'i-,  T'ort  Collins. 
Tht  lliiral  and  I'lUajf  ScluxiU  of  dtliirmlo. 

All  ri^'lit-ycjir  siirviy  of  ciich  wIkmJ  lii^trict. 

Georgia.  Slati-  Normal  S<'1i(m>I.  Atlu-ns. 

<ic<)r>,'ia  <  111!)  Hiillrlins.  'I'lifsc  luilli'liiis  iirc  issue*!  pcriiMlirally, 
Bllii  (li-)il  with  sihIi  siil)jc<-ls  aM  rilucutiotiiil  siirvi-ys  of  ditfcnTit 
rountifs,  fiirin-llff  <-'iniiiti()ns  in  llic  Nuitli,  tin-  itjuntry  smIumiI  of 
jHTmiint'iit  inti'iiiii  I-,  ilc. 

Illinois.  State  Dcpartiiicnt  of  M.iucation.  Sjiriiigfivhl. 

lit  port  of  Illinois  Educational  Commi.s.fion. 

Makes  reoomiiieniiations  and  sii>;ni-slioiis  for  ajrrieulliiral  traio- 
in^  ami  ilniuestic  scii-nce  courses  in  ditfereiil  t\  |hs  ''f  selicjoU. 

The  One-Room  and  Village  Sefu>i.>Li  in  Illinoi.f. 

Deiils  p'nerally  witii  tlie  iin|»roveiuent  of  rural  schools. 

Iowa.  State  Kducation  Department.  i)es  Moines. 

Condition.^  and  Scrdu  of  Iowa  Rural  SrfuHils. 

Deals  uitii  the  selii«ils  iincjiT  the  foliowinn  heads:  "fnuntry 
Siiool  Slatisties";  "The  ('oiiiitry  S<Iiih)1  I'rohlem";  "Present 
StatiLs  of  Consolidation";  "HuiKlinKs  and  (irounds." 

Kansa.s.  Statt-  Board  of  A(?riniltiire,  Topeka. 

Agrirultural  Education  o.»  a  Factor  in  Derehping  Useful  Men. 

In  the  Report  for  li>0».  Contains,  in  addition,  addr<-ss«>s  on  a>rri- 
cultural  leadership;  puhlie  education;  the  s<K'ial  center  of  the 
coiintr.v  nei^hl)orhiM>d;  country  life. 

Western  State  Xormal.  Hays. 

Educational  Agriculture. 

\  useful  discussion  of  the  principles  and  motives  underlying 
a^'riciiltural  iiliuatioii.  witii  a  practical  chapter  on  agricultural  lit- 
erature anil  its  u.se  in  the  .school. 

State  .\j^ri<ultiiral  College,  Manhattan. 

Manual  Training  in  Village  and  Rural  Schools. 

\  i)rac!ical  application  of  manual  training  to  the  ntt'ds  of  the 
rural  school. 


AI'I'ENDIX 


i6l 


KcntiK  ky.    Dtpartimnt  of  I'lihlic  Iiislniction.  Friiiikfort. 
Cormulidatiun  and  Traii.ifxirUUinn. 

DiNiis  with  ronditioDs  in  Kfiitm  ky.  Ailvatilaps  nf  und  cilijtc- 
tii)iis  to  <-<)n»iliiliiti<in.  Ontiinis  iihIIkmLs  tliut  Imvr  Ui  n  utldptfil 
tu  briliK  ulx>iit  ciiliMiliiLitiDU. 

Demonsirutiun  Schools. 

()ulllin-N  till'  succrs-i  of  the  (Icnmnsf  riitinn  s<Iiihp1  in  rural  <«ho<)| 
iniprovfiiiciit.  uml  ■>u>,'Kc,-.t.t  a  .-kiirt-  lurtl  (or  (^Tiuling  rural  scliuoU. 

Home  Economics  U'<rrk. 

Di-wriU-s  work  that  mn  In'  done  in  every  rural  .s<h<)<)l  and  home. 

Scho(A  League  and  Imprincment  Work. 

SuKWsts  a  constitution,  and  outlines  inc  IIumI-.  of  itnprovrnient 
in  regard  to  sanitiitioii,  material  t-onditions  in  th<-  x  li.~ilr.-.Mi. 
jK-hool  ^;arden>  and  ^'rounils,  and  the  estuMisiitnenl  of  x  h.H.j  fairs, 
rluiis,  etc. 

Massachusftb*.  SlaU-  Board  of  Education,  Hostoa. 

Ayricidtural  Projects  for  Kleriuntary  .SrluxiLi. 

(Jives  methods  that  can  Ik'  adopted  hy  the  untraincti  teacher  in 
carrying  out  fourtct-n  different  agricultural  proji-cts. 

Superri.'n'on  of  Teaching  in  Elenumtarif  .'^chnoU. 

A  hulletin  issued  fo  help  the  superintendent,  e<<pe<-ially  af  the 
l)<'(?innin>;  of  liis  service. 

Report  on  Agricultural  Education,  1011. 

.\n  invest  illation  into  the  (h-sirahiiity  of  estahlishinp  a  system  of 
a^!riiultural  .s<h(M>Is  ihrou>;hout  the  state. 

Michigan.  State  Supf'rintcndcnl  of  Puhlir  In.stnirtion,  I^n.sing. 
190<i.  Bulletin  No.  19.  Con.tolidaiion  of  Schtxd  Districts. 

States  the  Liw  and  gives  the  method  of  prtK-edure  to  Ix'  followed. 

1912.  Bulletin  No.  44.  Agriculture  in  Rural  Sc!u>oLi. 
Outlines  the  work  ihaf  can  Ix-  done  in  the  average  niral  schoo!. 

1913.  Bulletin  No.  11.  .-1   Course  of   Agriculture  for  the  Uigh 
Schools  of  Michigan. 

Michigan  Agricultural  College,  East  Lansing. 

Suggestions  and  sylhihi  for  the  ditferent  sulijects  to  \»-  taught. 

Minnc  sota.  State  Superintendent  of  Puhlic  Instruction,  St.  Paul. 
Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  in  Minnesota. 

Deals  with  the  problems  to  1m'  solved.  compaH-s  the  old  an<l  the 
new,  and  outlinesthe  metbods  to  U.-  adopted  to  eflitt  const^lidation. 


i&i 


Al'l'EMUX 


Bulletin  N'ti.  .'{H.  SiTonilari/  Cnursrs  in  AgriruUure. 

OlItlllHH    «llll    MllK  h    liilail    llTliI    I  lrarilr«s    lllr   ii.lirsc   fll   1m'   fill- 

liiwid     (  mil  liiiicH  with  ii  ■.i(tiii[i  i>ii  rural  v  liii.il  iiLTiitiltiirr. 
Misxmri.   Slutr  I  )i'|)artiiiiiil  nf  10<liiiati(iii.  .Iitrir-uii  Cily. 
.1  (  (lur.^l^<lf  Stiuli/  III  Ajriiiiltiiri  Jiir  lli'jii  ■'^ilumU. 

(iivi>  iniir^i'  iif  -.tiiilv.  Ii>t  iif  i(cii|iiiiriil.  tivtlHH.k-.  til-  ,  anil  in- 
htrm  liiilis  fur  (arr^iii^  out  Ikhim-  |iriijirt.H  uiiil  fur  kit'piii^  iiotp- 
IwHiks. 

I'"ir^l  I)i-.lrict  Nurmal  S'IiihiI,  Kirksvillo. 

Itiiral  l,ifc  ( 'iiiifcriiici-i,  Ri inirtx. 

Iliilli'tins  iiri'  iiiililislii'il  iinniialls  liy  the  m'1i<m>I,  ^'ivin^  tlic  a<l- 
clri'sst's  ilrlivincl. 

Nfl)r.'i.>ka.   Dcpartiiicut  of  Kfiiicatiufi,  l.iiicohi. 

.1  l,fHir Jritiii  the  Slutr  Siiprrinli'ndcrit.   S«-|>1('Ii)Ii<t  'i.').  li)l-i. 

I)cs(  rilx-^  llic  |>laii  M(|ii|>tiil  ill  the  State  uf  Ori>.'iiii  for  >.'iviri>; 
s«hiH)l  ( Tiiiit  for  liiiiiir  wnrk. 

Donustir  SrIcriiT  —  Cnir  Plan. 

Itulliiiis  a  plan  f'lr  k.'i\iiii;  il.'Mn-tir  si  iitwi'  iiistnictiiin  in  the 
liiMiif,  .siiid-il  til  Miiali  tiiNMiN.  vilkiL.'!^.  ami  rural  v'hiMi|<i. 

Xfw  ^'llrk.  Dfpartmiiit  i>f  Kilucaliuii.  Alliany. 

Our  CliiUrcn.  our  SrluxiU,  ami  our  InduMries. 

All  arj;\iiiiriil  fur  the  nvilali/.ation  nf  nur  mIumiIs  in  thi'  ilirc<tii>n 
iif  rraftMuan-liip. 

AgriruUiirf  and  itjt  Ednralional  Seeds. 

An  aililros  bifiin-  the  Stall'  Tiailurs"  Ass<«iatiim.  An  arfju- 
nii'iit  fill  real  a>,'ri<ultural  I'llucatioii.  atnl  ralliiT  ili  priHatin^;  its 
iulriitliiiliiiii  inti)  tlic  clrincntary  mIuhiI. 

I'roeeedinij.i  of  tlu-  I'nivtT.sity  (\)ii\(K'alion  Annual  Meetings. 
I'uhlislu'il   annually    lus   bullitiiis.    Oficn  runtain  M-hularly  ail- 
(iri'ssrs  nlatiiig  tu  a^fricultunil  i-iluiatinn. 

Proceed itiij.t  of  tlic  New  York  SUite  Agriculttiral  S<K'it'ty. 

l'iil>li>lii  il  annually  a.s  liulli'tins  liy  the  Stall-  Drpartniont  of 
Afjnculturc,  Albany. 

North  Carolina.  Df|)artrn('nt  of  Putilic  Instruction,  Ilaltigli. 

Cuiinolidatton  (if  SrluH)b.  and  Public  Traiisixntaiion  of  Pupils. 

An  invest ij.'ati( in  iiniliTtak.  n  to  (liscuvir  the  cost  anil  efficiency 
iif  the  one-teacher  schiH'l,  the  extent  iinii  results  uf  oinsi^liilation, 
ftnil  an  attempt  to  reach  a  valid  conclusion  as  to  whether  efficiency 
and  economy  do  not  demand  the  displae  'ment  of  the  one-teacher 
school  bv  the  consolidated  sehiK)!. 


Arri:\i)ix 


<fl:i 


Niirlli  I).ikiilii.   l'niviT>ilv  nf  Nurlli  Dakota,  (iratid  I'l.rks. 
l{>  jxirl  of  lln'  Rural  S<lioiil  ('oiiiini  .^ioti.  l!M.. 

.\il\iH  ;it's  |iirn;iT  tiTtn-"  iiinl  iH'tiiT  iittfriil.inr.'.  U-ttcr  tirmn'M.il 
>.ii|)|Kirt.  Ix'lliT  >irk;iiiiiziilii>ii,  iimsoliiliition  of  •«  liools.  U'tli-r  Ini'  li- 
in>!.  iinpr'iviil  >ii()i-r\ isimi.  iiinl  a  camiiiii;;!!  f'lr  rural  uplift. 

The  Coiiioliilatiim  nj  liural  Sihx>U  in  .\'(>rth  Dnkota. 

l)ivi<ir<i  intii  four  srclimis:  ".\orlli  Dakolii  Unral  S«1iii.i|h  at 
TtifV  An-";  "Wli.it  Is  11.  intr  Don.'  .VlH.iit  It";  "<  «>!i*iliilatiMii 
I'nil.lriii,  (  iitiHiili-P-il";  "Talil'  •<  and  StaliHtirs  " 

Soiitli  Carolina.   \Viiilliro|i  Normal  uiul  Iinliistrial  roll«'j;r.  U<K'k 
llill. 
t.U'mrntarif  A'jriiiilturr  ami  Siluxil  Cutriliiniiij. 

()utliIl.■^  a  iri.tli...!  uf  pnM-.iliin;  th.it  i  all  Ix-  f.il|..w.il  liy  111--  un- 
Iraini'il  traclur 

Hiind  Life  lhdltiiii.1. 

.V.l.lrrsscsil.liviTfdat  tin-  liural  Lifc-('(inf.Ttiii-.->  luld  aiinually. 

T.'iiricss.f.   Depart iiit'iit  of  PuMic  Iiistnx'tioii,  .\a.shvillf. 
Tlu-  Rural  School  Situation  in  Trnncisre. 

Drain  with  consoliilatiori  anil  tniii-i|><>rtatiiin. 
\'ir;;iiiia.  I'nivorsity  of  Virginia,  Cliarlottfs villi*. 

rr'xrnlinii-i  of  Rural  Lift-  Coiifcrriucs,  luM  annually  at   the 
I'uivfrsity. 

Wfst  Virginia.  Statr  H(<aril  of  Ilcgt-nt-i.  ('liarUston. 
Spirial  ILfxtrt  on  A'jriralturr. 

Chapters  oti  "  .\>;ri(ulturc  our  (ireatost  Asset";  "llow  shall  W'c 
Improve  Our  Atiriculfiin-  ami  Rural  I.ifi'";  "Mi-thixls  of  Rraching 
the  I'eopU-";  "Ur-.ults  in  Other  Countries  and  States." 

Wisconsin.  State  E<lucation  Departiuenl,  Madison. 

Plans Jor  the  Kxtrnaion  of  AjrinMural  aiul  Indiudrial  Training. 
Ke[xirt  of  a  coiuiiiission.    Deals  with  several  forms  fif  iniiustriij 
and  agricultural  education,  and  the  introduction  thereof  into  dif- 
fi'rent  tyjx's  of  sehcKils. 

Social  and  Civic  IIVAr  in  Country  Communities. 

Report  of  a  (s)mini>sion  appointed  to  investlRat**  conditions  in 
the  rural  schools.  Deals  with  the  s<hiKil  and  the  home  as  s<K'iaI  and 
civic  centers,  and  advocates  eoiipcration  hetwcen  the  two. 

Consolidation  of  Srh/xil  Di.itrirt.i. 

Contains  ehaptiTs  on  "  Wli.it  is  ConsMlidation";  "Purposes  and 
.Vdvantagei";  "Consolidation  and  Trau.nportation  in  AVi.scousiu"; 


iOl  Ari'KNDIX 

"(nn-w'li'l.itinn  in  Otlur  Sf.it' i",  "  l.imltaHons  ;inil  (  .iiiliuiM"  ; 
■■  Ml  IIhhU  ..f  rr...t  iliir. 

.1.   ('aniulian  I'lihral  ittul  I'ruiiiiriiil  I'ulillralinrt.'i 

I^l^ltl    ( '<iiiiiiii>->iiin    on    liii|ii<>trial     ainl    'I'li  liiiniil    tMucation, 
Hijxirt.    I  vuli.    Km^;'-«  l''iiil<T,  Otl.iwa. 

Till-  rr|Hprl  of  ii  c  iiiiiiiii'i^i'in  if  «i  \iri  iiiiimIm  r-,  »lii.  »rrr  ihcu- 
|)ii'i|  fiir  t»"  >i  MPS  III  iiiviilit,Mtirnj  iiiilii-.tri.ll  .unl  :iK'rii  iillural  niu- 
raliiiiiiii  KiiL'l.iiiil.  Si' itliml.  Iri  I.iihI.  I  )i  iiiiiiirk.  FraiKi',  (it'riuiiiiy, 
Svs  it/irliiinl,  llir  I  iiiliil  Slalii.  iiml  (  aii.iilii. 

Depart iiH'iit  I'f  Ai^riiiilliirr.  <Mta»a. 

Iliilli  tins  iif  l''i>riiKii  A>;rniillural  liitclliKitici-.    I.ssiKil  rnniillily. 
Tfu-  AgriiidturaL  (IdZtiU'. 

Drviiti  I  riiii>iiliTal>li-  span'  to  uiri  I'ultiiral  iiliicatlntl. 

OnUirio  Dcparliiii'iil  uf  .Vjirirulliin-,  Torniilu. 

.Viiiitial  npnrLs  uf  l'',iriiii'rs'  Institiilcs.  Wniiirii's  Iii>.tifiit<'<,  aii<l 
tlir  Oiituiriii  .\^ririiiliiral  ami  Kxprririii'iituI  I'liinii. 

DcpnrliiH'tit  of  Kiliicatiuii,  Turoiitn. 

Hhiiii  iitiini  A'jririiltHrr.  /[ortiriilliirr.  ttrul  Srhnnl  Cnrilrn.'i. 
Unjidatiitn.i  Ittltilinj  to  Elcmrntarn  AijricuJiurf.  Unrticultiirc,  and 

Srh/xd  (Inrilfun. 
liiilhtin.i  on  .iiirifidtiiriil  Kiliualiini.    Nos.  1  |u  10. 
F^liiiatlon  for  liidiiytritd  l'urix>.'<i:i,  lis'  Dr.  J.  Svalh.  Siiporin- 
tciiilt'iit  iif  Kdiiculioii. 

.\  nixirl  to  till-  Miiiislcr  i«f  Kiluiiition  .\  vitv  valualili'  ilocu- 
imiit. 

^i".    Piihlirdtiori.i  of  I'ariowi  Sorirtif.t 

Natiouiil  Sixittv  for  tht-  Study  i>f  Eiliicalion.    Yt-arlxMik.s.    liii- 
vcrsify  of  Cliicaf'o  I'rt-s.s.  CliicaKo.    EsiKt-ially  — 

Fifth.  10().>.    The  Phtrc  of  Vocalioual  Suhjfdjt  in  tlw  Ui<jh 
School  ('iirn'culiim. 
Tfnth.  1!)11.   Thr  Citii  Sr/mol  a.»  a  f'omminiiti/  Crnti-r. 
Tht   Rural  School  an  a  Commitnitif  Cnitcr. 
Elcvenlh.  l!>l-2.   Aiirii-idlural  F.diication  in  Srctmdary  Schools. 
Twelfth,  1!)1:{.   Siiiirn-i.tiori  rf  Kiiral  Schi>ol.<i. 
'riiirtciiilh.  1!H  i.   I'lans for  Organizing  School  Surreys. 

National  Education  .Vs.stK'iation. 
.1  nn ual  Procinting.i. 
Reiwrt  of  Coinrnittcc  of  Twelve  vn  Rural  Schools. 


APrENDIX 


«5 


InduMhal  F.iinratinn  fi>r  lliinil  ('(•nmunifirs.  11«);». 
Th.   I'lwr  nj  ImluMrn.i  in  I'uhin-  t:,lw(Ui>,n.  I'MO. 

('i>iif<ri-ii4r  for  Ivliiraliuii  in  tin-  Siiitli     .{unual  I'n-.n  <  .limji. 

SK-ii-ty  for  flu-  I'roiiiolioM  >'f  A^ri' ullurul  Si  :  cf.  Am, mil 
I'riM'i'filinij.i. 

Aini'ricaii  Acii'lfiny  of  I'olitiral  ami  S<Hial  S<  ii'ticr.  .(umi/.f. 
Various  issues,  liut  •■>iM'<ially  th'it  of  Munli.  lUl-t.  wIik  li  coii- 
taiiis  twfiil\-«i>;lil  \alualilf  articles  \>\  mcII  known  autliorities. 
ainl  tifiils  Willi  almost  rvi-ry  plia^-  of  tlic  rural-lift-  |>roM»-rii. 

7.  PubliratiDM  of  tlw  liourd  of  Education,  hmdon,  t'.ngland 
S|Mt-ial  re|><>rLs  oii  (■tliicalioiial  sul>j<'<'fs;  |iarti<Milarly  — 
\\)\.    7.   Thf  Uiiral  Srhool.t  of  .Xniih  Hint  Frame. 

liiiral  F.dwatiou  in  Fninrr. 
\i>\.    8.   .1  I'Ua  for  a  (ircat  .iijrindtural  SrfuxA. 
\*ol.    0.  SrfuHtl  (iardcns  in  (IrruKini^. 
\i>\.  10.  Saturr  S7m(///  in  tfw  I'tiitrd  StaU-'^. 
Vol.  1j.  Srfuxd  Training  for  thr  Ilomi-  Pulir.i  if  ll'(»m<^. 
^  <il.  l(i.  Srfuxd  Training  for  thr  Home  Diiliea  of  Women. 

Eflucatiorial  paiiipliit-ts,  N<>.  1.1.  The  I'robUm  if  Rural  SchooU 
and  Teacher  a  in  Sorth  Aiiurica. 


■ft: 


\.  r^ 


INDEX 


Adnn.'.  Daniel.  M.D..  10. 

A.l^iiM.  Act,  1.'). 

Adult  fiirntcrs.  institutes  and  other 

helps  fur.  isl. 
A>,'rc<'ini*nt  aiUDiifjst  professors,  lu<-k 

of.    (.')». 

Af^riciiiiiiriil  collcni's.  first  in  (':in- 
iid.i,  H;  iinpnivfinciit  nf  ii>;ri- 
cultiirc  l>y.  ^i.  1hi\  s  cntt-riiiL'.  •!">; 
purpose  of.  IK!,  ir  ;   oppositiciri 

of    tlilli  JllorS   to.    lV!t;     np|Ki»ilioll 

of  fiiniHTs  to.  1  I'.),  is  (•nL'ini-<riii;' 
tin' iinmin;int  factor  in.  X.'ii,  l.").'J; 
mission  of.  l.'i.i:  admission  to, 
l.')t;  future  of.  1.5(1;  exier.sion 
service  in.  l.»H;  problems  iiwait- 
in^;  the.  1(11;  place  in  educational 
syMeni.  If>l. 

.\>,'ricultural  department,  duties  of, 
l.V 

Agricultural  education,  a  phase  of 
industri.il  education.  x\ i;  liistori- 
<'al  review  nf,  1;  first  t,Tant  for  in 
the  I  uitcd  Stales,  i>;  pro^'r<'ss  in, 
liS;  stH'ondary,  119;  niomtary 
value  of,  11!».  liO;  vcxatioual 
value  of,  Mi.'i. 

.■Vfrricultural  fairs  at  ("amhrid^'e.  0. 

A(,'ri(  ullur.il  hi^h.  schcMiN.  advan- 
tat;es()f  separate,  M'A,  \t.'>;  eours«> 
of  studv  in.  IH:  nee<ie<l.  li(i; 
.special,' l;H;  county.  VM,  1.S.5; 
purpose  of.  IMi;  conjcressiunal 
district.  i;«;. 

.'\f,'ricultural  instruction,  demand 
for.  tit). 

Agricultural  perio<licals.  Kil. 

A^ricultur.il  pni'.perity.  a  fiictor  ir 
tinaiK'ial  stalulity.  xvii. 

.Ajrricultural  readers.  H.  tiH. 

Ajrricultural  .schiH)l.  first  in  .\nierica, 
9. 

Afrricultural  societies  in  America.  .5. 

Afiriculture.  has  held  a  suhordinate 
plaiv.  xvi;  influence  of  tradition 
on.  xvi;  itsdevelopmeiit  a  national 
question,  xvii;  economic  value  of 


pro<luctsnf,  Tviii;  nrimhorof  per- 
sons eiit'avred  in.  x\  iii;  the  tiasie 
industry,  xii;  the  part  of  educa- 
tion in,  sx;  many  rtmiplicatei! 
(x-cupation.s,  xxi;  prn^jress  of 
French  -ch<>ols  in,  -I;  its  ttirrela- 
tion  with  iither  p.trtsof  etlucation, 
f>:  prizes  for,  \i:  ohlijj.-itory  ia 
pulilic  s<h(X)ls,  H.  first  appr<v 
priation  for,  1.1;  eslahli^hmenl  of 
I'niteii  States  l)e[)artiucnt  of, 
11:  as  atrectini;  the  rhiirch,  i\; 
tejuhinu  in  the  rural  schools,  (>5; 
applied  to  the  teaihiii^;  of  V.tiit- 
iish,  tu,  CH;  to  arithmetic,  68;  U> 
^eo^rraphy,  C9;  on  the  proKTaiU 
of  every  rural  s<hool,  ti9;  diffi- 
cult to  separate  from  nature 
study.  7I(;  how  time  may  l>e  ob- 
taine<l  for  teaching;.  76,  77;  hin- 
drances to  the  taichinK  of,  77; 
tea'  hal)le  facts  of.  80;  benefits  ..f 
te.k  hill),',  Hi:  short  courses  in, 
IH,  ll.'{;  in  hij;h  schools.  li(i;  in 
State  .Normal  .Sth.^ds.  W9,  ifcJO; 
jrraduate  sihool  of,  t.'lS. 

Alahama,  results  of  clul>  work  in, 
\(H.  con^Tessionul  ilistrict  high 
s<1mkiIs  in,  13<). 

American  Fi-deration  of  Ijifxir.  199. 

.Vmuseiiients  and  recreatiou,  lack  of 
opportunities  for,  iW. 

Aristotle,  1. 

Arithuietic,  rural  seh<K)l,  60;  exam- 
ination paper  in.  <>H.  not  appli- 
<al)le  to  priictical  life.  6H;  garden- 
inn  correlated  with.  73. 

.Vrkans^is.  I>'n>;th  of  s<  IhmiI  session 
in. 4:^;  scoring  rural  s<hiMi|sin,<H(. 

.\rts  collcfjes.  influence  of.  151,  \!H. 

.\s.siKiation  of  .American  .\trricul- 
tural  ('olle>;es  and  Kxperiment 
Stations,  ItiO.  170. 

.\ss>i<iation  of  American  Farmers' 
Iri-litufe  Woriiers,  17.S. 

.\syluiiis.  farmers'  wives  and 
daughters  in,  'tS. 


I 

1 


«r,s 


INT)EX 


Attrti(i;inf«".  irrr'ciil.ir  Ir.nK  t'l  rru- 

ii'Miiii    w;i-l''.  .'."^ 
Ant.'M-lii-'  '  Hniriari   i  miimt.t  .   17. 
Aulli'Tilii-s  louMiltiil,  li>t  of,  tM 

if,:,. 
Ayn-s.  Dr.  l^-miinl  1'.,  «S. 

|{;illi.-t,  Dr.  'Hi..in;i.s  M..  i\0. 
ILilliitinri-    <  Miiiilv    AuricuKur.il 

Hi-li  Slin.,1.  l:(7.  l.is. 
Hrrkli'v,  <ii)\i-r!ior  of  \  iri.'iiii.i.  H. 
lirik^lurc  A^'rii-ullural  Sm  Icty,  7. 
llnl.Ml.  Joliii  IVaiikl- -,  '.H. 
It.Miks,  Lick  iif  aici'S.H  tr.,  <l. 
Hotaiiy,  IrxtUH.k  in,  l^s 
l!oy    oil    ttic   f.irni,   iis   an    unpaid 

haii.l,  ii,,  i~. 
Hoys'  (Mil  aiMpriuvits,  110. 
Hill iiaiiaii,  l'ri-.lilriit,  I'i. 
Hullitlii     scrviif     in     tlie     I'liit'-d 

Stall's,  177,  17H. 
Hurraii  of  I'lanI  Iiiiliistry,  17fl. 
Hii'iufs.s  uitllioiLs  ou  the  fariii,  xxii, 

1(;.1. 

C'(irii[p.iitni,  noopssity  for  a  nation- 

wiili-  icliir.atioliai,  .W. 
Caiiipi',   I. 
Caiiaiia.     ^Towth     of     otlucational 

ai,'ririiitiire  in,  11;  cliili   coiitrsts 

in,    UH;   s»H'ii   st-liflion   in,    10;i; 

fariniTs'  institutes  in,  IHi. 
Carillon     county     iMitato-fjrowinf! 

contest,  VH.  Tii;!. 
Carni-irii'   Fouiulation  for  llic  .\(1- 

vauictiicnt  of  reaching,  report  of, 

[■i:":  l.".i»,  l.M. 
(liciiiistry,  textl«Kik  for,  \iH. 

<  liililrcn,  care  of,  i(l7. 

<  Ininliis,  pa^torli'ss  in  Maine,  IH; 

alianiloneil  in  Hlinois,  1!»:  Oliio, 
■iO.  witness  of  llie  country,  tO; 
as  alfciiod  hy  agriculture,  il. 

<  icero,  17. 
Claxton,  Dr.   r.   I'.,  C'oinuii.s.sii)ner 

of  Kiliication.  ~r>. 
t  Jul  IS,  lioys'  anii  f,'irls'  ii^rricultural, 

KKt,  lo'l;  results  of,  lOi. 
Colclirook  acaiieuiy,  VM,  131,  ISi. 

l:!.t. 
<'ollei,'es,  model  for,  8. 

<  onieniu-.  3. 
t'oiuiuunity,  arran^'enu'nt  of  liuil.l- 

JLUJs,  JH;  social  ailivitits  of,  "JO. 


( 'onferencp   for   Fduration   in   tlie 

S.ulh.  Ml. 
< 'olilin  til  lit,    lcllj,'lll    of    SI  li.Mil    ,cs- 

!<ion  ill,  yi 
(.'ousoliil.iti  il  wliiM.ls,  notalile  ex- 
llIM|i|is  of.  H7;  the  .foliu  >waiii>, 
S!»,  tlie  Mays  I.ii  k.  !M).  111.  -latf 
of.  S!»;  course  of  study  in,  Hll,  '.Hi; 
expense  and  elliciency  of,  !«; 
^re.iter  cost  of,  ".I."!. 
Convijidation  of  schools,  the  ^rnat 
pauiweik,  IS;  people  nuist  vote 
on,  H.'>;  ])res«Mit  status  of  luiive- 
inent  for,  Xi.  H(i.  S7;  contract  for 
tran-imrtation  of  pupils.  S!»;  dif- 
ticiilties  in  lirin>;in>,'  .'ilioiit,  ill, 
0.").  properly  not  deprecialed  liy, 
9J;  objections  to,  '.Mi;  how  it  may 
be  accoinplislied,  !l(i,  !>7,  i)H. 
Consumption    overtaking    priKluc- 

tion,  xi\. 
<^«»)l.erati"n    between    home    and 

sihi.il,  !H),  IW,  U.'J. 
<  ooperative   demonstration   work, 

17(;. 
Co()perative    movenient    in    Den- 
j      mark,  i.!7,  fMs,  •i:i:>.  -iVl 
I  Corn,  producfiou  of,  177. 
Corn  (  oiiLTcss,  ilt7,  1;)H. 
('orncll    I  ni\ersilv,    Nature-Study 
l^-,lllets  of,   Kll.' 
1  Corre-poMilciice  courses  for  feach- 
I      ers,  -i.H,  iMS      (.Sec  (il.io  Reading 
I       Courses.) 

I  Cotton  boll  weevil,  rava»,'e.s  of,  17(1. 
Country    boys    and    girls    in    the 
I       liiited  States,  JS. 
i  Country    life,   realization  of,  xxiii; 
I      ilepeiident  on  town  life,  xvi;  at- 
tractive side  of  presented,  (iti. 
Country    Life   Conunission   of   the 

I  nited  States,  M. 
Comitry  youth,  vocational  train- 
ing of,  iiw. 
County,  as  the  administrative  unit. 
Hi,  .").'!;  study  of  sclnml  situ.ition, 
iMI,  !I7;  representative  of  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  in  the.  MMl, 
17.");  aL'riciilliiral  hiuh  schoi.ls, 
\M,    l:ij,    ILiO;    normal   .si.hool.s. 

Course  of  study,  vitalization  of,  60; 
overcrowded",  till.  t)7.  7H,  79;  re- 
,      udjUblmciit  of,  \i~i.  lis.  Ua. 


INDEX 


«69 


Cniirsrs  of  ofillcciafo   rt.iiIc,    I.v;. 

i:.7. 
("rcilit,  rural,  -iy^. 
Cultural   Viiliif  nf  school  siihjt-i  f>, 

70 
(iilliirc,  new  intfrprolatiun  of,  xvi 
(yrij.-),  1. 

Dcfcr-ts,  ohjwt  of  piiintinn  "lit,  47. 

Df  Lav.ii,  Fraii'.ois,  tir-^t  Idshoj)  nf 
<'lllliic|.l.   11.  , 

I)>'iiii)M^lr:iticiii  s<li(KiIs,  51.  , 

Dcniciii-.triili()n    traius,     178,     179,  • 
■i\-,  t\H.  I 

Dfimiark,  .stnliilify  of  nir.il  popu- i 
liitioii  Iti.  IS;  rural  proptrtifs  in,  i 
id!);  per  lapitii  wcallli  of,  iU;  r<".-i-  ' 
dinci'  for  to.'uhcrs  in,  .y.i,  rural 
whiHil.s  in,  ti.'J;  illiteracy   in,  ti:<. 
lenfjth  of  mIiooI  year  in,  <>.'};  ajnn- 
cultural   situation   in,   iM,   i,'t7; 
rtMipcrativc    movement    in,    i.'{7. 
!i;iH,  if.i'.t,  ■HI):  cauM'.s  of  proere« 
in,    tMt,    peoples'    hi^;li    s<hiMils, 
IdU-.").    Koyal  .Vin-ieultural    an.L 
Wterinary    Institute,  il.j;   rural 
organization  in,  iMi. 

Dep.irtment  of  .\^,'riiulture.  t'ounty 
reprcM-ntative  of,  175. 

District  of  (olumhia,  ii;  Agricul- 
tural Sx'iety  of,  7. 

District  system  of  mIiihiIs,  t.'i,  40. 

Districts,  condict.s  iK-tueen.  HH. 

Domestic  .science  trains,  il7,  ilS. 

Draper,  Dr.  .\nilre,*  S.,  71,  7t>. 

F2urninc  and  learning,  combination 
of,  U.5. 

Ecoiioniic    and    s<Kial    conditions, 
changes  in,  1.57.  j 

Etlucation,  the  most  imfK)rtiint  ' 
question  in  country  life,  xv;  in-  , 
U'r[)retationof  imlustrial.  xvi;  the  i 
part  of  agriculture  in,  xx,  xxvi;  ' 
suited  to  l(K-ul  conditions,  xxii;  ] 
separated  from  politics,  o'.i:  his- 
tory of,  70;  long  thought  unno- 
ct'.s,sjiry  for  the  farmer,  1  U). 

Eilucational  conditions  in  Siuthern 
Slates,  40,  41. 

Educational  opportunities,  lack  of, 
<4. 

Ellsworth.  TIenry  L.,  13. 

Eucanipuicuts,  boys',  110. 


r.ti.'lish.  .iLTi'  ulture  applied  to  tlie 
teaching  of,  07.  (is 

i;(|iilprMeMt,  prolii.Tii-  of.  ;i!l,  im- 
provement in  rural  s<ho. i|.   U. 

Kvening  scIkkiIs.  rur.d.  ll:i;  neeilecl 
in  evi-ry  village.  111.  wliai  -hould 
Iw  t.iiight  in,  lit;.  117.  IIS. 

KxiH-rinient  stations,  Olilce  of,  I."); 
acts,  1,V 

Kvperimental  farn.s,  (irsf  proposal 
of.  r,. 

Kxperiments  on  the  home  farm, 
110. 

l!\tension,  rural  schiM.I.  !KI. 

Kvtetision  service.  (  htssitication  of, 
U!7,  KiH,  lt;!»;  detinition  of.  lt)7. 

Farm  l-oys,  wages  for,  H. 

Farm  t:irls,  wages  for,  il;  hik'h 
school  work  for,  i(l7. 

I'arm  home,  conditions  of,  xxii;  .self 
contained,  iS. 

Farmer,  should  \te  jiMe  to  liM>k  after 
hiinsilf,  xvii;  strongly  conserva- 
tive. x\i;  training  of  t  lie  adult,  xxii. 

Farmers,  removal  to  the  (  ity.  10, 
H.  popular  estimate  of,  io;  stage, 
i(i;  <  lul>s  f.,r.  I'Xi. 

Farmers'  .Alliance,  7. 

Farmers'  institutes,  for  young  p«'o- 
ple.  107,  lo.H;  dirirtion  of.  lOS; 
teachers  for,  IK;  ort',ini/.;i,tion 
of,  lS;t,  1!M);  Icturers  for,  IHl; 
qualifications  of  le<tures  for,  I.H5, 
IHti;  nieth(Mi  of  (hixisiu^f  lec- 
turers for,  lH(i,  1S7;  in  Ontario, 
ISM,  ISO;  program  (.f,  ISO,  100; 
lenglli  of  sessiiin  df,  IDI ;  rni-th(Mls 
to  Ik>  ad<ipted  in,  \'H.  lO.f. 

p'armers'  National  Congress,  7. 

F'arraers'  (nion,  7. 

Farms,  i.s<jlated,  i:i;  size  of  Danish, 
■i'J. 

Farragut  sch<K.|,  the,  IH.'J,  134. 

Fe<l<Talion  of  forces,  xs,  l'J7;  state 
plan  of,  100.  iW. 

Fellenhcrg.  4. 

Fertility,  loss  of,  10.  iO. 

Florida,  length  of  scIkkiI  session 
in,  ii. 

France,  national  society  of  agri- 
culture in.  4;  residence  for  teach- 
ers in,  j.<. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  5.  8, 


270  INDIA 


KiiinN,  tlif  <iilP.stii'n  (if.  .')(),  ax. 

('..i\>\  CriiTtir  W.isliiii/'    ti.  111. 
(iiinl.-iis.    wli.M.I.    .■!.      i:    (..iiimnii 

plots  ill,  'i.  iii'livi'lual  plots  in. 

7:t;    linlida^    r;irr   of,   7;l,   71,   in 

f(.«ns  iiiid  .-ilii's.  1  i,  7.5. 
(iiir.llii.r  l.ycciini.  !t. 
(ico^'nipliy,' iit;riciiltiirc  applittl  tn 

till'  tcK  liiii;,'  of.  ti!t. 
(icori-'i.i.  (■on^'rl■s■-ioTl.ll  ilislrict  lii^'li 

s.li.-.ls  ..f.  imi. 
(i<s,r;.'iii  (lull  for  llic  sludy  of  ninil 

.s,..io|ni;y,  IS.  V.t. 
(iirN.  in-litiit>s  fnr.  1  li».  Ill;  oiit- 

si.i.-  scIkh.I  hrlps  f,,r.  j!(».-,,  ■iUC. 
(iriiilii.itc    Si.Ltx)l    of    Agritultun-, 

■i:;:,. 

Iiarri~on,  I'rosiilcnt,  11. 

Ilartlili.  Sainufl.  i. 

Ilat.li  Ac  ts.  l.V 

lii),'li  Siliools,  'ippoiictifs  of.  ll!l; 
Ivpr  Ir)  l)C  <l«v.lop<-.l,  \-i\.  ild- 
vaiita^TS  of  fxi-till;^.  HI,  1^^. 
\i:l.  in  small  towns  ami  rural 
<li-tri(ts,  Ii7;<oininrnialioiirs(S 
in,   H!l;  rc'iru'ani/.alion  of,   ISO. 

Ilonir  fjarilrns,  7.'»,  7(i. 

Home  opinion,  inllmnce  of,  i<). 

Ilonu-  |>roJivts,  !»!»,  IH.  Massa- 
chusflts  plan  of,  IW,  \H. 

Horse,  sliuiy  of,  71. 

liousiliol.l  siicncr.  in  tin-  rural  clf- 
in.'Mlary  S(iio<  1.  ■iii:<,  itU;  fcaih- 
inj,'  through  tin'  home,  idot,  iO.") 

Uliiiol-.,  s(  ii(M)I  hniMiuK'^  in,  40;  work 
<if  co.inty  supiTinti-niionf  in,  !:'•. 
4V;nuinriiTof  tru-ti'csin,  Ki;  nor- 
mal school  s(hol:irship  hiw,  •i^i'.i. 

Illil.Tati's,  in  Un-  I  nilfti  States,  ii; 
in  Ui'ninark,  'i'J. 

Industrial  eduiation,  interi)reta- 
tion  of,  xvi. 

Indu-~trial  supervisors  in  rural 
seli..ols.  Vl. 

Industries,  deeay  of  villajje,  i8. 

Infiirniation,  (MiUeetion  of  not  an 
en. I  in  itM-lf.  4S. 

Inslilut  National  .Xgrononiiciue,  4. 

ln-.tilntc'>^,  f(.r  voun^'  poiple,  107; 
f..r  ''iris,   U(t,    111;  ri.M.-  of.   IHl, 


extent  of,  IHi:  small  allendune*" 
at,  IH;^.  jud^rment  of  wiirk  at, 
lH:t.  for  woni.'ii,  ilO,  yil.  mi  On- 
tario, ill,  i\i.  instruition  ^:iven 
at,  t\:i.i\i,  ■t\.'>,  <!'••  for  lea<  h- 
ers,  iM,  i'M. 

Instrueti.in  in  .itrririiltiirr,  de- 
niunil  for,  <i(>. 

Interest  in  education,  principle  of, 

i. 

Invesfi^ation  and  instru<'tion,  IC". 

lowii.  |(Kal  M-hiHil  tav  in.  ^t\ :  rural 
sihiM.ls  in.  .lit,  00;  state  agricul- 
tural e(ille>;e,  170;  itinerant  uieet- 
in>;s  in,  IHl. 

Isiihition,  <\  ds  of,  ii. 

Itinerant  tcitehers,  iSi,  434. 

•lesuits,  i. 

JohnSwancy  ( 'onsoliJated  School, 

87. 

Kansas,  local  s<Iiimi1  t;.x  in,  .ll. 
Kelly.  Oliver.  I'.ll.  I!»7. 
Kentucky,    demonstration    schools 

in,  '>\. 
Kin;j^'     College     (.Columbia     Uni- 

i.crsity ',  !>. 
Knapp,  Dr.  Seaman  \-,  17(3. 

Labor,   required  on   the  farm,  ii; 

saving  in  lost  of,  -ii. 
Liind,  use  of,  in  e»nnei'tiou   with 

schools,  Ut. 

Land-grant,  ohjeet  of,  11;  colleges, 
purpose  of,  1  lr<i,  1 47;  .struggles  of, 
UH. 

Land  holdings,  small,  W. 

Latin  and  llreek,  acquisition  of  a 
kiiou  ledge  of.  XV. 

Learning  and  earning,  145. 

lyi'ctiires  f.ir  farmers,  evening,  ISS. 

Legislative     enactments     in     the 
I       liiited  State.s,  1:1. 

I>»s.ser  S<niinary  ((Juel>ee),  11. 
;  Lincoln,  President,  14. 

Literary  wH'icties,  140. 

Live  stiK'k,  decrease  of,  XX. 
(  Living,  high  <'osl  of,  xvii. 

I.,ord  Klgin,  11- 

Los  .\ngeles,  school  gardens  in,  74. 

Macdonald  movement,  in  ("anadii, 
54,  HG;  sehiMil  gardens  of,  73. 


iM)i:\ 


ni 


Macliiiiory,  iiso  nf  ini,.ri)vr(i,  ii. 

Miirliir.-,  Willi.itu,  !) 

Mill.'    t.;irliiTs    111-.'.!    of    in    niriil 

srli....ls  :,:(. 
Midi. mil  N  l.\t  ImmiU  i.n,  US. 
Mciii|)lii>.     riiiiir'xr,  ,s<liiM)l   j;ar- 

ilrii-.  in.  7 1. 
Mm  rii|iiiriMl  on  luml,  iiiiinlifr  Icvs 

til. in  forinirly,  ^i. 
Mirlii(,Mn    Stiile  .Vtrriciillunil   Col- 

If^'f.  foiiniiiilion  of.  III 
Mirlii>riiii  .^'^tiite   Buanl  of  Af,'rii-ul- 

''"■'■•  •"'• 
Milton's  "Triwtiite  nf  Iviuiiition," 

:!. 

Min'ifai>'ili^.  srhiM)!  jjiinli-ns  in,  7.5. 

Minn.'iitii,  ilivi-.ion  of  time  in  a^Ti- 

nilliiral    .hiIi.miIs    of.     lUd.     Iniil 

mIiooI  t.ix  in.  ."il. 

Mi>>i^^i|)I)i.  illitcraiy  in,  5-i.  re- 
sults of  ihili-uork  in,  \Ui. 

Missouri,  ciiiiiational  -iirvcy  in,  40; 
loial  s<  111  Mil  t.i\  in,  .'il. 

Mitrlifll,  S.irniifl  I>iitliani,  '.). 

MikIcI  v  IiooI,  ,)t;  iti  ciinnorlion 
with  nnnnal  s<lii><ils,  't.'t:  at  Kirks- 
villo,  Missiniri.  .'>' ,  at  .New  York 
Stat<"  (  olIiT'i'  "f  .Xk'rii'iilliirc.  ,>7. 

MiM'<kiTn,  fxiK-riniunt  slulion  at, 
H. 

Monatian,  A.  C.  S7. 

M.Hinliglit  s<liiMils.  IH,  115.  116. 

Morrill,  Senator,  140;  acts,  IS.  14. 

Morrison,     State      Stii>erinteni!ent 

(N.  n.i,  i;»i. 

Movable  si'liiK)K,  organization  of, 
17:*,  17  4;  cuuditions  of  success  in, 
175 

Miillmll.  5. 

"National  IntelliKPnoer,"  4. 

Nature  stuily.  7(1,  7i:  how  time 
may  l)eol)laiiifi!  for,  70,  77;  bene- 
fits'of  tcaihing.  Hi. 

Nebraska,  liK-al  school  tax  in,  51; 
state  aj.'rieultural  society,  iOti. 

Neef,  .Joseph,  !>. 

Neufiliiiteau,  Fran^-ois  de,  4. 

New  Hampshire,  ministers"  salaries 
in,  'i^. 

New  Harmony,  scIhhiIs  at,  9. 

New  Mexiro,  len)^th  of  .school  ses- 
sion in,  H. 

New  York  Society  for  the  I'romo- 


fion    of    .\(;riciiltural    .\rts    ami 
Manufactures,  «. 
Ni'w    ^  ork   Stale   .\^,T"iiult\iral   Si>- 

iietv.  n;o.  u.i. 

Niw    \iirk   State  College  of  .\nri- 

cullure.  \'i. 
N..1.U..1.  .John.  .M. 
Normal   mIiooIs.   ^railuates  in.   M7. 

county.  ii!(l.  H~ :  State.  rt7.  ii>i. 

«!);  aV-riculture  in.  •iiu,  *«). 
North   Carolina,    lenj^th   of   scIukiI 

.session  in,  4<. 
North  Dakota,  ajrrieultural  <s)l!e).'e 

of,  KK). 
NunilKTs   in   aKriculluraJ   ajlleges, 

desire  for,  154. 

Ohio,  rural  life  survey,  iO;  liK-al 
.mIiooI  tav  in,  51,  county  iusli- 
tuti  -  ill.  \Si. 

Onciila  Manual  l^iilnir  Institute, 
10. 

One-lc.iihir  scliiHils  in  the  I  riited 
Stales.  .">.  7.  :U. 

Ontario  .Vfjricultural  Colli^'e,  Kit, 
lt;."i.  l«(i. 

Ontario.  conMilidalionin,  S(!;.s<  Imol 
fairs  in,  UK!,  Kll,  Ul.1;  county 
representatives  in,  17,">;  farmers' 
institutes  in,  ISH,  18!»;  trainini,' 
rural  schiMil  teai  hers  in.  Hi.  ii.'i, 
m.  rural  teachers"  conferences 
in,  m.  director  of  eliincntary 
agricultural  educ.ition  in,  ^■^5. 

Patent  office,  distrii)ulion  of  seeds 
liy,  l;5. 

I'atrons  of  Industry,  7. 

Pennsylvania  ."^tate  (loUege,  read- 
ing ciiurs«'s  at,  17i. 

r.stalozzi,  »,  10. 

I'hiladelphia  Academy  (ruiversity 
of  Pennsylvania),  !). 

Philadelphia  Siciefy  for  Pronu)- 
ti.iin  of  Agriculture,  5,  tl. 

Phvsiis,  textbiHik  in,  liS. 

Plutarch,  7. 

Population,   rural,    (hnline   in.    17. 

18;    increas«-   in    urban,    17,    tit; 

stability  of  Danish,   IK;  shift  iti, 

li>;  (auses  of  decline  in,  H. 

;  Problems  awaiting;  the  collek;e,  Ifil. 

;  Prixlucts  of  uf;riculliire,  economic 

i      value  of,  xviii. 


«7« 


I\I)KX 


PriifcsH<irs)ii[i:«,   cnilnwriirnt   of,   fi. 

I'riljcilM.      I.S'rC   llrlllC   |)r<lj('<  ts.)  I 

I'rinxTt),    iiNM-s-.riii-nt    nf    in    the  I 
<  iiiint),  .'il.  I 

I'ulilic  >i<ti(Mi|  system,  u.s<'  of,  6;  be- 
;:uiniM>;  of,  10. 

riil.liiity.   l(i<» 

I'upils,  iiiiiiiutiirily  of,  79. 

HfiiiliTs,   a^rric  ultural.  \i,  V>H. 
I{(•illliIl^r  ciiiirHcs,  ,it  Ontario  ARri- 

•  ulturiil  ( 'ollrjtc    171;  iit    I'rnii- i 
svlvaniii    Statr    <'ollrj;p,    1  Ti;    at 
New  \ork  Stato  ( 'ollcjjf  of  .\>;ri-  I 

•  iiltiirc,    n-i,   for   tcacluTs,    iM, 

Rfircation,  (Icvclopnicrit   of  rural, 

Hi'^lilciico  for  rural  scliooliiiaslcr. 
Vt,  K!». 

Rlioiii'  Island,  Icnjj'h  of  s<-!i<kiI  ses- 
sion in,   a. 

Roails,  ai;iouul  of  money  $i>ont  on,  [ 
.«».  :ti. 

R(>\isse.iu.  3. 

Royal     \i  ademy    of    Agriculture,! 
Herlin.  .1. 

Rozier,    vdIk',  4. 

Rural  (  re.lit.  tS. 

Rur.il  evetiing  whooln,  113,  114; 
wliat  shall  1m-  laii^rhl  in,  IKi. 

Rural  M'liools,  'M:  attendance  at, 
;U,  .'{.■>;  toilet  fariliiics  in,  41;  ad- 
niini  tritinn  i.f.  t.'i;  supi-rvision 
of,    4.),    advantages   of,    47;    iiu- 

f)r.>ven)ent  of,  ^H,  Mi.  57,  .V.i,  04; 
ack  of  financial  sup[xirt  of,  51; 
slate  aid  for,  :>•£:  ailaph-d  to  rural 
conditions,  j;i;  nio<lc!led  on  city 
.sc!i(M)ls,  .'li:  p.irents'  day  in.  ^.'>: 
.scoring!  in  Arkansjis,  tio,  (il,  »ii; 
in  Derunark,  <>U;  extension  serv- 
ice of,  !>!),  KMt;  changes  in,  iH>; 
monthly  nu-etin^ts  for  teachers  of, 
l.'JS;  training;  teachers  for,  41!), 
•iii).  -in.  ■i'it,  •i'i:>:  or^'anization 
of  Danish,  i46,  i47,  HH. 

Salaries  of  te.-u'hers  in  Denmark, 
(i.i,  (>4.    (.u-c  al.io  Teachers.) 

Salitnian,  3 

Shool  liuildine').  evolution  of,  .i!>; 
nuKlels  of,  41;  new  kind  required, 
55,  50,  57 


S<  hool   fairs    in   Ontario,   lOi-    or 
pinizalion  of,   104;  rnanat'ctneril 
of,   10,1,  to  he  kept  strictly  edu- 
cational, llMi. 

SiIkn.I     >;ardeas.      {See     (iardens, 

srhool  ) 

SctiiHil  s«-ssion.  lenjrth  of,  4i;  hroken 

into  fra^'incnts,  H. 
S<hoo|s,  one-teacher.  .'5,  7,  .'{t;  s\ini- 

nier,    \i.  changes   in,   l*!l;   niinin- 

liyhl,    114.    11.');    nioval.le,    I7.S. 

l>'«r  al.io  Rural  schools.) 
Smith-Lever  Hill.  15,  10,  179. 
Siloinon'.s  ^'ardcns,  1. 
."soule.  Dr.  .\ndrew,  71. 
St.ite  ajjpropriation.s,   slitiing  scale 

of.  5i. 
Stewart,    Mrs.   Cora   Wilson,    114, 

11.5. 
Sulisiitute  teachers,  5.5. 
Superintendents,  (pialilieations  of, 

4:t,  14. 
Supervision,  43. 
Surveys,  4(»,  4H. 

Teachers,  sex  of.  30;  preparation  of, 
.S(i;  uithiMit  training.  ;i7;  no  de- 
mand for  well  trained,  ."{H;  remu- 
neration of,  .'i.S,  ;t9;  residenie  for, 
5:i,  Sll;  substitute,  55;  sjdaries  in 
Di-nmark,  (l.S,  (U;  influence  of, 
<i(l;  ntt'il  for  sfMiially  trained, 
111;  as  representatives  of  depart- 
ments of  airriculture,  141,  \H; 
f raining  of,  15S,  41i),  i.'JO,  tiil; 
institutes  for,  i'Jl,  i:ii:  corre- 
spondence eours<vs  for,  i^i,  i.'lS; 
itinerant,  i.'t.'t.  i:n,  higher  train- 
ing of,  i:M.  iX"). 

Tenancy,  increase  of,  iS,  iO. 

Textl>ooks,  HH,  earliest  agricul- 
tural, 10. 

Thaer,  AII)ro<-ht.  5. 

Toronto,  first  normal  sehool  at, 
11. 

Township  unit  system,  46. 

Trains,  demonstration.  178,  179; 
domestic  siience,  i\7,  ilH. 

Trans|Mirtation,  <lif{icultie.s  over- 
come, S9;  lack  of  facilities  for. 

United  Statct,,  one-feacher  .sch<K)ls 
in,  5,7,  34;  legislative  enactments 


INDEX 


■iTS 


of,    13;    CdTTinii'isionf'r   of    AltI-  '  Waxhiniftnn.  CtertTf'P.  H. 

rultiirr.  14.  |)f|mrtrnrnf  <if  Acri-    Wal^in,  KIkiinah.  7. 

lultiirr    <-.|jil.li-li>i|.     U,    St  n--    \\  hfiit.  r\|H.rts  cf.  <(). 

tary  nf  Aifii  ulhirr.  1.");  ('uiiiitry     Wmiuii.  ciiiiiliiymi'nt  i)f  as  frai  tiiT'*, 


I. iff  (  iimiiii^^i'ii  <if.  ill. 


V{.  "!'.>.  K<).  iiidiitlily  liKt'tinjK'^  fi'f. 


I  iiiviTsiliiN,     ^anliii--     of      Muni-         l.'lll.   uii    tlif    farm,    'i^ll,   mlUxt- 
I  tilitarian    valiK'    nf    mIuhiI    siil>- 


jtils,  70 

Villat'f  induct ri("<.  ilccay  nf,  i4H. 
N'lM  atiiinal    value    of    agrkultural 
c<iu<ation,  1J5. 


c'(>iir>«'s  for.  <()H. 

Yale,   prtiffssorship  of  agriculture, 

Id. 
Vifl.l  [M-r  a<rc  ilHli),  xx. 

Zooloiry,  lextb<'<)k  for.  liH. 


Cbf  RilirraiBr  prr»# 

C  A\ll;|(ll>l.i;   .  MAs>Al  III  SKTTS 
I'     .    S    .    A 


